People of the Revolution and the USSR

French monarchy Counter-revolutionary forces 1754–1793 ✕ Executed

French king deposed and tried during the Revolution

The National Convention ruled on 3 December 1792 that it would try Louis XVI itself; convicted of high treason by vote, he was guillotined on 21 January 1793.

King of France from 1774, Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General in 1789 amid a fiscal crisis. He accepted the Constitution of 1791, but the Flight to Varennes and foreign war deepened distrust of the crown. The monarchy was suspended in 1792; the National Convention convicted him and he was executed in January 1793.

French monarchy Counter-revolutionary forces 1757–1836 ○ Died in exile

Count of Artois who led émigré royalism during the Revolution

At his 1825 coronation at Reims he tried to revive the royal touch, asserting the sacredness of monarchy; in July 1830 his ordinances dissolved the chamber and censored the press, and the Paris rising forced his abdication on 2 August.

Louis XVI’s younger brother, the Count of Artois left France soon after the fall of the Bastille in 1789. Abroad he promoted Bourbon restoration and became a political centre of émigré royalism. He succeeded as Charles X in 1824 and was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830.

Consulate and First Empire state institutions Counter-revolutionary forces 1769–1821

A conqueror who rose from revolutionary general to emperor

In the coup of 9–10 November 1799 (18 Brumaire), he conspired with Talleyrand and Sieyès and used troops with fixed bayonets to disperse the Council of Five Hundred and overturn the Directory, then took effective power as First Consul.

Born into an Italian-descended Corsican family, he was commissioned in the French royal artillery in 1785, supported the Revolution of 1789, and rose through his victories over royalists at Toulon in 1793 and Vendémiaire in 1795. The Italian campaign of 1796 made him a national hero, and in November 1799 the Brumaire coup overthrew the Directory and made him First Consul; in 1804 he became emperor of the First Empire. He won at Austerlitz in 1805 but was ruined by the Russian campaign of 1812 and Leipzig in 1813, was exiled to Elba in 1814, and after the Hundred Days lost at Waterloo and died on Saint Helena in 1821. His reforms such as the Napoleonic Code and public education endure, while the plunder of occupied lands, suppression of the press and deportation or imprisonment of critics, and the restoration of slavery in the colonies make him a contested figure.

Austria state institutions Counter-revolutionary forces 1872–1962 ○ Died

Habsburg archduke and last field marshal of the Austro-Hungarian army who briefly declared himself regent of Hungary in August 1919

Born at Alcsút in Hungary into the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, he entered the army in 1890, commanded a corps, an army and army groups in the First World War and on 24 October 1918 became the last field marshal of the Austro-Hungarian army. On 27 October Emperor Charles made him homo regius of Hungary, but the Aster Revolution put an end to his plans. After the fall of the Soviet Republic he became head of state in August 1919 as regent for Charles and appointed István Friedrich prime minister, but when it became clear that the Allies would not recognise a Habsburg as head of state he was forced to resign on 23 August. In the Horthy era he was president of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences from 1936 to 1944. He left Hungary in 1944 and died in Rain, West Germany, in 1962.

Counter-revolutionary forces 1880–1944 → Died in exile

Last Emir of Bukhara, driven into exile in Afghanistan by the Red Army in 1920

Born in Bukhara in 1880, the son of Emir Abdulahad Khan, he was sent at thirteen to Saint Petersburg, where he spent three years at the Nicholas Cadet Corps studying government and military affairs, and on his return governed Nasaf and Karmana. In 1911 he became the twelfth and last emir of the Manghit dynasty. He began his reign with reforms against bribery and unauthorised taxation, but soon sided with the traditionalists, and after 1917 he repressed the reformers, the Young Bukharans among them. He repulsed the Bolshevik attack led by Kolesov in March 1918, but during the Bukhara operation at the end of August 1920 he fled via Dushanbe to Kabul. In exile he cooperated with the British in the hope of regaining power and is said to have supported the Basmachi; he died in Kabul in 1944.

Ethiopia Counter-revolutionary forces 1892–1975 ✕ Murdered by the Derg after deposition

Moderniser and anti-fascist icon who never touched the land order that finally undid his dynasty

In 1936 he told the League of Nations, 'God and history will remember your judgment.'

Descended from the Solomonic dynasty, Haile Selassie I was the 20th-century emperor who modernised Ethiopia and, with his 1936 speech to the League of Nations, became a global symbol of anti-fascism. From his regency he drove reform through the 1931 constitution and the abolition of slavery, and after exile under Italian occupation he returned with British forces in 1941 to restore the throne. But his modernisation, which left the northern rist and gult tenures and the southern land-grant system intact through compromise with the nobility and clergy, never freed the peasantry from tenancy, and the 1972 Wollo famine turned opinion against him. Deposed by the Derg in September 1974, he was strangled on the junta's orders the following August, months after the proclamation that nationalised the land system his reign had preserved.

Vietnam Counter-revolutionary forces 1913–1997 → Died in exile

Last emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, who abdicated in 1945 and returned as head of the French-backed State of Vietnam

Bảo Đại abdicated in August 1945, returned as head of the State of Vietnam in 1949, and was ousted in a 1955 referendum organized by Ngô Đình Diệm’s government.

The thirteenth and last emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, he came to the throne in 1926 as nominal ruler of the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. When Japan overthrew the French in March 1945 he became emperor of the Japanese-sponsored Empire of Vietnam; after the August Revolution of 1945 he abdicated in Huế on the 30th and became “supreme advisor” to Ho Chi Minh’s government. Soon in exile, he returned under the Élysée Accords of 1949 as Chief of State of the French-backed State of Vietnam, criticised as too close to France and too often abroad. Ousted by Ngô Đình Diệm in a 1955 referendum, he died in Paris in 1997.