Activities and affiliations

Government and administration Ukraine state institutions 1873–1941 ✕ Executed

From Balkan revolutionary to head of Soviet Ukraine: the diplomat who became an opposition theorist

"Our misfortune is that we held responsible posts and power turned our heads." Final plea at the 1938 Moscow trial

A pan-European revolutionary of Bulgarian ethnic origin who also held Romanian citizenship, Rakovsky founded the Balkan Social Democratic Federation. As chairman of the Ukrainian Council of People's Commissars from 1919 to 1923 he helped build the Ukrainian Soviet state, and he later served as Soviet ambassador to Britain and France. A Left Opposition theoretician who challenged Stalin's nationalities policy and party bureaucratisation, he was expelled in 1927, admitted his errors to Stalin in 1934 and was readmitted in 1935. Sentenced to 20 years at the Third Moscow Trial in 1938, he was shot at Oryol on 11 September 1941 and rehabilitated on 4 February 1988.

Science and technology Affiliation unconfirmed 1876–1937 ✕ Executed

A physician of the Left Opposition who shares a name with the first president of Russia

He has no connection to Boris Yeltsin, the first president of Russia. Even the Russian spellings differ: Eltsin for him, Yeltsin for the president.

He was born in 1876 in Zvenigorodka, Kiev Governorate (some sources give 1875). He joined the RSDLP in 1897 and completed medical studies at Novorossiysk University in Odessa the following year, working thereafter as a physician. Exiled to Ufa Governorate in 1910 for revolutionary activity, he worked as a sanitary doctor in Belebey and attached himself to the Bolsheviks. After the revolution he served in local soviets and on various commissions, and from 1923 he belonged to the Left Opposition and signed the Declaration of 46. Expelled from the party in 1927, he was exiled to Ust-Vym early the next year and held in the Suzdal political isolator in 1929. Arrested again in 1936 and exiled to Siberia, he was one of the organizers of a hunger strike by political prisoners in Magadan that year. He was shot in 1937 and rehabilitated on 23 November 1956. His son Viktor Borisovich Eltsin was also active in the opposition.

Military command Soviet Union 1877–1937 ✕ Executed

The revolutionary soldier who founded Post No. 1 at Lenin's Mausoleum

In a letter to Trotsky from Siberian exile dated 6 June 1928, Muralov wrote: "I would rather be drawn and quartered than write a confession. Even if I am alone — I will not write it."

Born on a farm, Grecheskie Roty, he left at seventeen for an agricultural school and joined the Bolsheviks in 1903 while working as an assistant agronomist in Podolsk. After serving on the Moscow Military Revolutionary Committee in October 1917 he became the first commander of the Moscow Military District, and in the Civil War he sat on the Revolutionary Military Councils of the Eastern Front and the 12th Army. He signed the Declaration of the 46 in 1923, joining the Left Opposition, and in 1924 he founded Post No. 1 at Lenin's Mausoleum; after defending his views at the 15th Party Congress in 1927 he was expelled and exiled to Siberia. Arrested in Novosibirsk on 17 April 1936, he was sentenced to death on 30 January 1937, shot on 1 February 1937, and rehabilitated posthumously by the Supreme Court of the USSR in April 1986.

Government and administration Ukraine state institutions 1879–1925 ✕ Suicide

First woman to lead a Soviet government, between revolution and terminal illness

As German troops advanced on Kyiv, Bosch refused to abandon the city without a fight. Her comrades had to forcibly evacuate her.

A Bolshevik of German settler background, she became the first woman to head a Soviet government as acting leader of Ukraine's People's Secretariat in 1917. In Swiss exile she opposed Lenin on the national question; later she signed the Left Opposition's Declaration of 46. She died in 1925 after years of incurable illness.

Political and party leadership Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks 1881–1936 ✕ Executed

The Siberian Bolshevik of the Left Opposition

Stripped of his commissar post in 1927, Smirnov, penniless, went to the labor exchange to register as an unemployed precision mechanic. When he wrote 'People's Commissar of Posts and Telegraphs' in the box marked 'last position held,' the petty clerk at the window stared dumbfounded at the tall, greying man with lively eyes standing before him.

A Bolshevik who joined the RSDLP in 1899, he endured seven arrests and years of prison and exile in service of the revolutionary movement. A Civil War-era party organizer in the Urals and Siberia and chairman of Sibrevkom, he played a decisive role in defeating Kolchak's White forces. In the 1920s, he became a leading figure of the Left Opposition. Even after his 1927 expulsion, he led a clandestine opposition group from 1931, reestablishing contact with Trotsky via Berlin, and was arrested in 1933, sentenced to death at the first Moscow Trial in 1936, and executed.

Military command Soviet Union 1883–1938 ✕ Executed

He arrested the Provisional Government in 1917; Stalin arrested him in 1937

Summoned to be shot, he gave his jacket and shoes to his cellmates. According to Yuri Tomsky, he said: "Tell people that Antonov-Ovseenko was a Bolshevik and remained a Bolshevik to his last day." Twenty-one years earlier he had arrested the Provisional Government.

Born into a Chernigov noble family, he joined the revolutionary movement in 1901. In October 1917, as secretary of the Military Revolutionary Committee, he prepared the seizure of the Winter Palace with Podvoisky and Chudnovsky and carried out the arrest of the Provisional Government. He commanded Soviet forces in the south and in Ukraine during the Civil War, and in 1921 chaired the plenipotentiary commission for the suppression of the Tambov peasant rising, signing its decision to use poison gas. Head of the Red Army Political Directorate from 1922, he was removed in January 1924 for defending Trotsky, then served as plenipotentiary to Czechoslovakia, Lithuania and Poland. Named RSFSR People's Commissar of Justice in 1937, he was arrested that year and shot on 10 February 1938. He was rehabilitated on 25 February 1956.

Military command Soviet Union 1884–1928 Death circumstances disputed

Bolshevik military leader of 1917 and the Civil War

On the evening of 24 October 1917, Lashevich ordered A. V. Belyshev, the Military Revolutionary Committee commissar aboard the cruiser Aurora, to restore traffic across the Nikolaevsky Bridge that junkers had drawn apart the day before, and the task was carried out.

Born in 1884 in Odessa, in the Russian Empire, into a Jewish merchant family; he joined the RSDLP in 1901 and was a Bolshevik from 1903. In 1917 he took part in the October rising in Petrograd, and in the Civil War he commanded the 3rd Army. In 1925 he became First Deputy Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the USSR Revolutionary Military Council. After joining the United Opposition in 1926 he was demoted and worked at the Chinese Eastern Railway in Harbin until his death in 1928.

Diplomacy and international organization Comintern 1885–1939 ✕ Killed in prison

The polemicist who survived trial only to die in prison

"Do you know the difference between Stalin and Moses? Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, but Comrade Stalin led them out of the Politburo." — Radek to Boris Bazhanov, after Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Politburo.

A Polish-born Jewish journalist and diplomat who moved between the international social-democratic and communist movements. A close associate of Lenin, he participated in the Brest-Litovsk negotiations and the founding of the Comintern, serving on the Bolshevik Central Committee and as Comintern secretary. Renowned for his sharp polemics and biting wit, he led the Left Opposition before recanting publicly in 1930 and rejoining the Party. During the Great Purge he became the central defendant at the Second Moscow Trial, delivering theatrical confessions that earned him a 10-year sentence; in 1939 he was killed in prison on Stalin's orders.

Scholarship and theory Affiliation unconfirmed 1886–1937 ✕ Executed

The theorist of primitive socialist accumulation

Victor Serge recalled: "He had driven himself so hard that during meetings it seemed he might at any moment drop off to sleep; but his brain was still fresh, and crammed with statistics."

A Bolshevik economic theorist and co-author, with Bukharin, of The ABC of Communism (1919), the foundational textbook of early communist parties worldwide, he served as a Central Committee Secretary during state-building. As an initiator of the Declaration of 46 (1923) and the Left Opposition's chief polemicist, he formalized the theory of 'primitive socialist accumulation' in The New Economics (1926), arguing that surplus must be transferred from the peasant sector to fund industrialization, framing the NEP debate. He returned to the Stalin line in 1929 but soon broke over collectivization violence, joined an underground opposition group, and was executed in 1937.

Economy, finance and planning Soviet Union 1887–1936 ✕ Executed

A revolutionary who consistently pursued the intra-party left line, from Left Communism to the United Opposition

In February 1918, as chairman of the Moscow Regional Bureau, he led the resolution opposing Lenin's course of accepting the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.

Having joined the Bolsheviks in 1905 and endured six years in tsarist prisons and exile, he led the Left Communists against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty as chairman of the Moscow Regional Bureau in 1918. During the Civil War he served on the Revolutionary Military Council of the 5th Army and chaired the Ufa Revolutionary Committee, then adhered to every major intra-party left opposition: the Democratic Centralists (Decists), the Declaration of the 46 (1923), and the United Opposition (1926–27). Expelled and exiled in 1927, he returned to work as head of the Economic Research Sector of the RSFSR People's Commissariat of Finance, but was arrested and shot in 1936.

Political and party leadership Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks 1887–1937 ✕ Executed

Leader of the 'Democratic Centralists' who demanded inner-party workers' democracy

'To call such an economy socialist means committing a crime before the working class and discrediting the ideas of communism.' From 'The Agony of Petty-Bourgeois Dictatorship', written December 1931, published 1932

Born into a Russian peasant family in the village of Mostaushka, Tula Governorate, he worked as a house painter from the age of 15, joined the revolutionary movement in 1905 and became a Bolshevik in 1912. After the October Revolution he served as chairman of the Moscow Provincial Executive Committee and of the Kharkov provincial revkom, deputy chairman of VSNKh, secretary of VTsIK and chairman of the Small Sovnarkom. In the early 1920s he led the 'Democratic Centralists' demanding inner-party democracy, was expelled at the 15th Party Congress in 1927 and exiled, and later became a key theoretician of the Left Opposition. In December 1931 he wrote 'The Agony of Petty-Bourgeois Dictatorship', analysing the Soviet system as a 'deformed state capitalism'; he was executed in Moscow on 28 September 1937.

Military command Soviet Union 1888–1936 ✕ Executed

The Red commander of the Urals

In 1926, after Zinoviev broke with Stalin, the Left Opposition weighed an alliance. Mrachkovsky: 'With no one — Zinoviev will run and Stalin will deceive.'

A Bolshevik organizer and Civil War hero from the Urals, he led the Special Northern Expeditionary Detachment to capture Tobolsk and was twice awarded the Order of the Red Banner. He later commanded military districts before becoming the first head of Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) construction. A key figure in the Left Opposition, he coined the famous warning 'Zinoviev will run away, and Stalin will deceive,' and was executed at the first Moscow Trial in 1936.

Political and party leadership Soviet Union 1890–1937 ✕ Executed

The Bolshevik between revolution and the industrial plan

January 1937, in the dock at the second Moscow trial. The German writer Lion Feuchtwanger recorded: "I shall never forget how Georgy Pyatakov, a gentleman of medium height, middle-aged, with a small bald patch and a reddish, old-fashioned, trembling pointed beard, stood before the microphone and calmly, diligently narrated how he had wrecked the industry entrusted to him. He explained, pointing with an outstretched finger, like a university lecturer — a historian delivering a report on the life and deeds of a long-dead man named Pyatakov, striving to clarify every detail, seized by the single desire that his listeners and students should understand everything correctly."

A Bolshevik revolutionary and the first head of Soviet Ukraine. As a Left Communist, he fiercely opposed Lenin over the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the national question, and was one of only six Bolsheviks named in Lenin's Testament. Expelled as a Left Oppositionist, he recanted and returned to drive the Five-Year Plans as Deputy Commissar of Heavy Industry, before becoming chief defendant at the second Moscow show trial and being executed in 1937.

Social movements and organizing Affiliation unconfirmed 1891–1938 ✕ Executed

The Kosior brother who died in Vorkuta as an oppositionist while his brother ruled Ukraine for Stalin

After signing the Declaration of 46 in 1923 he spent fifteen years as an oppositionist, through expulsion, exile, a political isolator, and a camp, until he was shot.

Born in Węgrów in Poland, he joined the RSDLP in 1906. He was the brother of Stanislav Kosior, and while his brother rose to the Politburo and the leadership of the Ukrainian party, he took the road of the oppositions. He was an instructor for the Moscow metalworkers union in 1919, a member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the 12th Army and deputy head of the political department of the 14th Army in 1920, chairman of the All-Ukrainian Council of Trade Unions from 1920 to 1922, and chief editor of the trade-union paper Trud from 1922 to 1924. He belonged to the Democratic Centralist group in 1921, signed the Declaration of 46 in 1923, and worked with the Left Opposition thereafter. Expelled in May 1928, he was exiled to Pokrovsk in the Volga German ASSR, and because he kept up the work in exile he was given three years in a political isolator and then five years of exile in Minusinsk. In July 1936 he was sentenced to five years in the camps and held at Ukhta-Pechlag, was arrested again in December 1937, and was shot at Vorkuta on 30 March 1938.

Political and party leadership Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks 1892–1937 ✕ Executed

The young oppositionist of the Revolutionary Military Council

On 7 November 1927, the tenth anniversary of the Revolution, Smilga hung portraits of Lenin, Trotsky and Zinoviev from his apartment opposite the Kremlin with a banner reading 'Let's Fulfill Lenin's Testament.' Stalin's supporters broke in and wrecked the apartment; beaten in the street and arrested, he escaped custody later that day.

A Latvian-born Bolshevik revolutionary and economist. He joined the party at fourteen and was elected to the Central Committee at twenty-four in 1917, becoming Lenin's key collaborator during his Finnish hideout. During the October Revolution he transported pro-Bolshevik troops from Finland to Petrograd; in the Civil War he served as a Revolutionary Military Council member on every major front and as head of the Red Army's Political Directorate. A principal leader of the Left Opposition, he led its last public demonstration in November 1927. After renouncing Trotskyism in 1930 he was reinstated, but secretly continued in Ivan Smirnov's underground opposition organisation. He was executed in January 1937.

Political and party leadership Soviet Union 1888/1890–1937 ✕ Executed

The Left Opposition secretary whom Lenin called a 'brilliant worker'

According to his daughter Zorya's recollection, Lenin called him a "brilliant worker."

Born in Samara to a working-class family, he began working at nine and became a metal fitter and turner at the Hartmann locomotive works in Lugansk at fourteen. He joined the Bolsheviks in 1905, worked on the Lugansk committee, and as a delegate to the 1912 Prague Conference met Lenin before being arrested and exiled to Narym. During the February Revolution of 1917 he led his regiment out in Kostroma, then served as secretary of the Moscow Party Committee, a Central Committee member (1919–1921) and CC secretary (1920–1921). One of the leaders of the Left Opposition who signed the Declaration of the 46, he was expelled in 1927 and exiled to Semipalatinsk, reinstated in 1930, and shot in 1937 as a main defendant in the Second Moscow Show Trial.