People of the Revolution and the USSR

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1904–2008 ○ Heart attack

The oldest practicing surgeon in history and the key propagandist of Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign

A Leningrad professor, hearing of the young Uglov's surgical reports, called them 'the fabrications of Baron Munchausen', then examined the operations and withdrew the remark.

Born to a peasant family in Siberia, Uglov graduated from Saratov Medical Institute and served as a surgeon through the Winter War and the 900-day Siege of Leningrad. He pioneered operations on the esophagus, mediastinum, lungs, and heart, and earned a Guinness World Record as the oldest practicing surgeon, operating until age 102. During the 1985 anti-alcohol campaign, he was its key propagandist: his articles claiming that no dose of alcohol is acceptable and that drunkenness was alien to the Russian people were distributed nationwide, and he chaired the Union for the Struggle for National Sobriety. In his later years, he courted controversy by blaming alcoholism on a Jewish conspiracy and classifying rock music as a drug, aligning himself with the Russian nationalist right.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1911–2012 ↓ Dismissed 1987

The defence minister removed after the Rust affair

On 28 May 1987, 19-year-old West German Mathias Rust flew a Cessna through Soviet air defences and landed on Red Square. Two days later at the Politburo, Gorbachev proposed Sokolov's dismissal — no one dared object. The veteran marshal's 55-year career ended with a boy and a single flight.

A Soviet military elite forged in the Battle of Lake Khasan and the German-Soviet war, he served 17 years as First Deputy Minister of Defence (1967–1984), becoming the institutional backbone of the armed forces. Promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1978, he exercised de facto command of Soviet operations in Afghanistan as head of the Defence Ministry's Operational Group. He rose to Minister of Defence in 1984 but was dismissed by Gorbachev after Mathias Rust landed on Red Square in 1987. The only Marshal of the Soviet Union to reach 100, he witnessed both the zenith and the end of the Soviet military.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1918–1998 ○ Natural causes

The last Soviet ambassador to watch the GDR dissolve

On the night of 9 November 1989, as the Berlin Wall came down, Kochemasov tried unsuccessfully to telephone Gorbachev, then Shevardnadze, for instructions. He did nothing.

Soviet politician and diplomat who served as Deputy Chairman of the RSFSR Council of Ministers for 21 years (1962–1983), overseeing cultural and social policy in the Russian republic, while also chairing the All-Russian Society for the Preservation of Historical and Cultural Monuments (1966–1983). Appointed Soviet ambassador to East Germany in 1983, he held this critical Cold War post through the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, when he was unable to reach Mikhail Gorbachev or Eduard Shevardnadze for instructions. In April 1990 he delivered to East German Prime Minister Lothar de Maizière the Soviet 'Non-paper' setting out eleven conditions for German reunification, representing Moscow's interests as the GDR dissolved.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1920–2021 ↓ Removed 1990

The conservative Second Secretary inside perestroika

At the Plenum of February 6, 1990, Ligachev, pressed to resign, declared: 'Damn it, I want to work!' But he was not removed from the Politburo days later: he lost the CC secretary post and the Politburo seat at the July 1990 congress, taking 776 votes against 3,642 for deputy general secretary.

He was first secretary of Tomsk province from 1965 to 1983, seventeen years in which oil and gas extraction grew and the towns of Strezhevoy and Kedrovy were built. In 1979, when the Ob exposed a mass grave of Great Terror victims at Kolpashevo Yar, the region moved to destroy the remains and the traces of the burial; he denied any involvement. Brought to Moscow on Andropov's initiative in April 1983 as head of the CC organizational-party work department, he became a secretary that December and a full Politburo member in April 1985. As de facto second man in 1985-1988 he backed early reform and drove the anti-alcohol campaign, which he later admitted was a mistaken strategy. In July 1990 he lost the CC secretary post and his Politburo seat.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1921–2017 ○ Natural causes

Gorbachev's pen and conscience: architect of New Thinking diplomacy

Diary, 10 November 1989, on the fall of the Berlin Wall: 'The Berlin Wall has collapsed. This entire era in the history of the socialist system is over. That is what Gorbachev has done.' Source: Gorbachev Foundation archive, translated for the National Security Archive.

Born 25 May 1921 in Moscow (Maryina Roshcha), died there on 12 March 2017. He volunteered for the Red Army in July 1941, fought on the Northwestern Front in the liberation of the Baltics, and left military service in 1945. He studied at Moscow State University's history faculty and in 1958–1961 worked on the editorial board of Problems of Peace and Socialism in Prague. He joined the Central Committee's International Department in 1961, served as Gorbachev's foreign policy aide from March 1986 to 1991, and was a People's Deputy of the USSR in 1989–1991. From 1992 he led perestroika documentary projects at the Gorbachev Foundation. Sources differ on his degree year and on the dating of his International Department deputy headship.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–1991 ✕ Suicide

The Soviet Marshal who forged the INF Treaty and could not outlive the USSR

When Akhromeyev proposed an Orlando plant for INF inspection, Shultz cried, 'That's Disneyland!' The Marshal replied evenly: 'Then let the inspectors see Disneyland too.'

Born in 1923 in the village of Vindrey in Tambov Governorate, Russia, he became Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1983 and served as Chief of the General Staff and First Deputy Defence Minister from 1984 to 1988. Wounded and frostbitten at Leningrad as a cadet, he later transferred to the armoured forces and in 1979 took part in drawing up the operational plan for the intervention in Afghanistan. As Gorbachev's military partner he backed the arms-control negotiations that produced the INF Treaty, resigned in protest at military reform and unilateral cuts, and then served as presidential military adviser. After the failure of the August 1991 coup he took his own life in his Kremlin office, leaving notes saying he could not live to see the destruction of everything he had devoted his life to.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–1997 ○ Natural causes

The last supreme commander of the Warsaw Pact forces

"As it historically happened, Army General Lushev proved to be the last Commander-in-Chief of the Warsaw Pact Joint Armed Forces" — a post created in 1955 that quietly expired with him 36 years later.

Born to a peasant family in Arkhangelsk, he entered combat in 1942 as a rifle platoon commander on the Volkhov and Leningrad fronts, was wounded twice during the Sinyavin offensive, and forged his command experience in the crucible of the Great Patriotic War. After the war he transitioned to armoured forces and built the core of his career in the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, rising to become its commander-in-chief in 1985 under Gorbachev. Appointed First Deputy Minister of Defence in 1986 and Supreme Commander of the Warsaw Pact Joint Armed Forces in 1989, he became the last officer to hold that post when the alliance dissolved in 1991. He was decorated as a Hero of the Soviet Union (1983), held the rank of Army General (1981), and served on the CPSU Central Committee and in the Supreme Soviet.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–2002 ↓ Removed 1990

The technocrat who rose from defense-plant apprentice to Politburo overseer of the military-industrial complex

During the Great Patriotic War, the eighteen-year-old Zaikov, working twelve-hour shifts in a defense plant, ran away to the front three times. Each time he was sent back to the factory — and so his path as a defense-industry man began.

A factory-floor technocrat who rose from apprentice die-maker in Leningrad's defense plants to Politburo member and CC Secretary (1985–1990) overseeing the entire Soviet military-industrial complex. Inheriting the defense portfolio from Grigory Romanov, he chaired the Politburo commission on nuclear and conventional arms reduction and was one of a handful of senior officials fully aware of the Soviet Union's prohibited biological weapons programme. After Boris Yeltsin's ouster in 1987 he concurrently served as First Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee. Awarded Hero of Socialist Labour (1971) for directing the defense electronics enterprises Novator and Leninets, he embodied the pragmatist industrial manager elevated to the highest party ranks.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–2005 ○ Natural causes

The architect of glasnost: the ideology chief who dismantled the ideology

May 19, 1983, on Eugene Whelan's farm in Amherstburg, Ontario. Walking a lane between corn and soybean fields, Yakovlev later said he "threw caution to the wind" and told Gorbachev what he considered utter stupidities in foreign affairs. By the end of that walk the two were comrades in reform.

Born 2 December 1923 in the village of Korolyovo, Yaroslavl province, into a peasant family. Called up in 1941, he commanded a marine infantry platoon on the Volkhov Front, was gravely wounded in the legs in August 1942, and was demobilised in February 1943. He joined the party in 1944, moved to the Central Committee apparatus in 1953, and studied at Columbia University in 1958–59 as an exchange student. In November 1972 an article against great-power chauvinism pushed him out of the party apparatus; from 1973 he spent ten years as ambassador to Canada. He became director of IMEMO in August 1983, then propaganda chief in 1985 and a full Politburo member in 1987, driving glasnost and the re-examination of history. In 1989 he chaired the inquiry that confirmed the secret protocols. He died in Moscow on 18 October 2005 after a long illness.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–2009 ○ Died of illness, Moscow

General who received the Victory Banner and stood alone in the coup dock

In June 1945 Captain Varennikov, as chief of the honour guard, received the Victory Banner when it arrived at Moscow's central airfield; hours later that banner led the Victory Parade across Red Square.

Soviet and Russian general of the army, veteran of the Great Patriotic War and the Afghan War. He received the Victory Banner at the head of the honour guard in 1945 and, from 1984 to 1989, headed the Defence Ministry control group in Afghanistan, where the Hero of the Soviet Union title came for commanding Operation Magistral in 1988, not for the withdrawal. Not a member of the State Committee on the State of Emergency, he supported the August 1991 coup as its military representative; in 1994 he alone refused amnesty, and the Supreme Court acquitted him for acting on a superior's order. Prominent in the KAL 007 shoot-down order and the January 1991 events in Vilnius. State Duma deputy from 1995, later an inspector general of the defence ministry. Died in Moscow in 2009.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–2019 ○ Natural causes

A staff general who turned wartime experience into military theory

After the 1989 withdrawal, he remained in Kabul to advise Najibullah’s government on conducting the war.

Makhmut Gareev was a senior commander and military theorist who shaped Soviet approaches to operations and training through the combined perspective of wartime experience and staff work. In the General Staff’s scientific and operational institutions, he developed a practical method for analysing war and preparing forces. After the Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, he remained as chief military adviser to President Mohammad Najibullah, linking continuing Soviet aid with the Afghan government’s military planning and operations. In memoirs and studies, he interpreted the Afghan war and Soviet wartime experience as military and political lessons.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1923–2021 ○ Natural causes

The last reform-era Procurator General of the USSR, who oversaw the legal rehabilitation of Stalin's victims during perestroika

"Prosecutors must be closer to the life of the people," Sukharev declared after becoming Procurator General in 1988, as his office processed the rehabilitation of hundreds of thousands of victims of political repression.

Born into a peasant family in Voronezh, he worked as a lathe operator at an aircraft factory as a teenager before going to the front at 18. As a signals officer he advanced from Moscow to the Vistula, earning four combat orders, and was severely wounded crossing the Narew River in Poland in 1944. After demobilisation he rose through the Komsomol and the CPSU Central Committee apparatus specialising in procuracy and justice, becoming first deputy minister of the re-established USSR Ministry of Justice in 1970. Appointed Procurator General by Gorbachev in 1988, he pushed forward the mass legal rehabilitation of victims of Stalinist repression. After retiring in 1990 he directed the research institute under the Russian procuracy, devoting his remaining decades to strengthening legality and criminal justice reform.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1924–2002 ○ Natural causes

General of the Army who commanded the Strategic Rocket Forces through the Afghan war and the dissolution of the USSR

On 17 July 1943, in his first day of combat, he led his machine-gun platoon into enemy trenches, seized a key height in hand-to-hand fighting, then held it against seven counterattacks. Severely wounded, he lost consciousness — and his family was sent a death notice.

An infantry officer who led a machine-gun company through the Great Patriotic War, wounded three times and fighting from the Carpathians to Czechoslovakia, he went on to graduate from two staff academies with a gold medal and, as commander of the Turkestan Military District, oversaw the 40th Army's operations during the Soviet–Afghan War. As Commander-in-Chief of the Strategic Rocket Forces and Deputy Minister of Defence from 1985 to 1992, he presided over the RVSN at its peak strength of more than 1,400 ICBMs, then managed its transition into the CIS Strategic Deterrence Forces after the USSR's dissolution. Through the state's collapse he never left the party or the armed forces, upholding civilian control over the nuclear arsenal.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1924–2007 ↓ Arrested 22 Aug 1991; State Duma amnesty 1994

The KGB chairman who designed the August coup

On 17 June 1991, in a closed session of the Supreme Soviet, Kryuchkov warned that Western 'agents of influence' had penetrated the reformist camp and joined Premier Pavlov's demand for extraordinary cabinet powers. Two months later the coup he organized collapsed in three days and he was arrested.

Born on 29 February 1924 in Tsaritsyn (later Stalingrad, now Volgograd). He worked at Stalingrad artillery factories in 1941–43, graduated as a jurist in 1949, and served as an investigator and prosecutor in Stalingrad districts in 1946–1951. Posted to the Soviet embassy in Budapest as third secretary in 1955–59, he lived through the Hungarian events of 1956. In 1967 he followed Andropov into the KGB, heading its Secretariat and then, from 1974 to 1988, the First Chief Directorate. Appointed KGB chairman on 1 October 1988, he held the post to 1991 and was a Politburo member in 1989–90. He led the August 1991 State Emergency Committee (GKChP), was arrested on 22 August 1991, released in January 1993, and amnestied by the State Duma in February 1994 without a completed trial. He died in Moscow of a heart attack on 23 November 2007.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1924–2020 ○ Died in Moscow

The last Marshal of the Soviet Union and defence minister of the August coup

On why he accepted the amnesty, unlike his former deputy Valentin Varennikov: "Otherwise I would have been convicted for damaging the asphalt on Moscow's streets with tanks."

He volunteered at seventeen in 1941 by lying about his age, fought on the Leningrad front and was wounded twice, and in 1962 commanded a regiment secretly deployed to Cuba during the missile crisis. Appointed Defence Minister after the 1987 Mathias Rust affair, he clashed with Gorbachev over the pace and scale of nuclear arms reductions; in April 1990 he became the last Marshal of the Soviet Union. He carried out the Afghan withdrawal and a unilateral cut of 500,000 men, then joined the 1991 State Emergency Committee and sent tanks into Moscow. He refused to order the storming of Yeltsin's White House and withdrew the troops; arrested, he spent 498 days in custody before a 1994 State Duma amnesty. Lithuania convicted him in absentia in 2019 and he died in Moscow in 2020.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1925–2004 ○ Natural causes

The last chief of Soviet GRU who led military intelligence through the USSR's dissolution

In late 1990, as residencies across Eastern Europe folded, an officer asked Mikhailov: 'Are we winning or losing?' He replied: 'It is no longer about winning or losing. We are simply crumbling.'

A career officer who began as a Vladivostok infantry school instructor during the final phase of World War II, he rose through the Frunze and General Staff academies to command a motor-rifle division in the GSVG and serve as chief of staff of the Turkestan Military District and the Far East command. Posted as senior military adviser to the Vietnamese People's Army in 1979–80, he returned to head the General Staff's Main Operations Directorate, overseeing Soviet operational planning. Appointed GRU chief in July 1987, he led Soviet military intelligence through the withdrawal from Afghanistan, the collapse of Eastern Bloc regimes, and the dissolution of the USSR, earning promotion to General of the Army in 1990. He retired on health grounds in March 1992 as the last regular chief of the Soviet GRU.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1925–2011 ○ Natural causes

Ligachev protégé who led Leningrad during early perestroika

At the March 1989 Politburo session, Solovyov reported that all seven Leningrad party leaders had been defeated and insisted voters were rejecting perestroika itself, not the candidates.

He spent over two decades building the Leningrad Metro before rising through the party apparatus as a technical cadre. Appointed First Secretary of the Leningrad Oblast Committee in 1985 and candidate Politburo member in 1986, he oversaw the Soviet Union's second city during early perestroika. In the March 1989 elections for the Congress of People's Deputies, he ran unopposed yet roughly 60 percent of voters crossed his name off the ballot. He and all seven Leningrad party leaders were defeated, a watershed moment that signaled the collapse of party authority.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1925–2013 ○ Natural causes

Last President of the USSR Academy of Sciences and pioneer of computational mathematics in Siberia

“Science is a single living organism, not a conglomerate of autonomous mechanisms. Unfortunately, neither the politicians nor the scientific community have the concept of saving domestic science.” — 17 December 1991

An applied mathematician who built the centre of computational mathematics in Siberia and rose to the pinnacle of Soviet science administration. He pioneered nuclear-reactor calculations, atmospheric and ocean modelling, and mathematical immunology, laying the foundations with splitting methods and adjoint-equation theory. In 1964 he founded the Computing Centre in Novosibirsk, the USSR's first large-scale numerical-modelling centre. As GKNT Chairman and Deputy Premier from 1980, then Academy President from 1986, he steered Soviet science through perestroika. He became the last President of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1925–2015 ○ Natural causes

The last Soviet Minister of Electronics, who led microelectronics through perestroika's final years

Under his leadership, the Voronezh plant produced the USSR's first integrated circuit, followed by a stream of electronic systems for rockets, spacecraft, and strategic nuclear command-and-control.

A central figure in Soviet electronics, Kolesnikov oversaw the development and mass production of the USSR's first integrated circuit at the Voronezh Semiconductor Devices Plant in the 1960s, and as First Deputy Minister of the Electronics Industry from 1971 to 1985 he expanded the microelectronics base for missile, space, and strategic nuclear systems. Promoted to Minister in 1985 as perestroika began, he supervised the entire Soviet computer and semiconductor sector until the ministry was abolished alongside the USSR itself, having been unable to close the technology gap with the West.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1926–2012 ○ Natural causes

The last RSFSR premier who tried not to break Russia away

October 1989, at the CC CPSU meeting on the RSFSR political system: "Creating a separate Russian Communist Party is the path to splitting the Soviet Union." He directly opposed Gorbachev's plan.

A Soviet institutional figure who rose from aviation plant engineer to first secretary of the Kuibyshev and Voronezh regions. Sidelined as ambassador to Cuba under late Brezhnev, he was politically revived when Andropov sent him to Krasnodar to purge corruption. In 1983 he became chairman of the RSFSR Council of Ministers and a full Politburo member, leading the Russian republic's government for five years; immediately after Chernobyl he served as deputy chairman of the government commission dealing with the disaster. In 1988 he moved to chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet Presidium, but when Gorbachev pushed for a separate Russian Communist Party in the final years of perestroika, Vorotnikov openly opposed it, defending the RSFSR within the union framework to the end.