Founder of the Icarian movement who coined the term 'communism'
On February 3, 1848, sixty-nine of Cabet's followers boarded a ship at Le Havre. 'To Icaria!' They set sail to build a communist paradise in the New World.
French utopian socialist and founder of the Icarian movement. In 1840 he published Voyage en Icarie, laying out a blueprint for a communist society based on workers' cooperatives, and was the first to establish 'communism' (communisme) as a political term. The most popular socialist advocate of his day, with some 400,000 adherents in France, he fused Christianity and communism in Le Vrai Christianisme, recasting Jesus's teachings as a gospel of social equality. In 1848 he led followers to America, founding Icarian communities in Texas and Illinois that lasted until 1898, the longest-running non-religious communal experiment in U.S. history. A bridge between Enlightenment utopianism and the workers' movement.
Career timeline
1788Born in Dijon. Qualified as a lawyer.
1830–1831July Revolution participant. Attorney-general in Corsica, then elected deputy for Côte-d'Or.
1833–1834Founded Le Populaire. Convicted of treason; exiled to England.
1834–1839Developed communist ideas in England under Robert Owen's influence.
1840Published Voyage en Icarie. First to call himself a 'communist'.
1841–1847Revived Le Populaire (~400,000 readers). Published Le Vrai Christianisme.
1848Emigrated to U.S. Founded Icarian communities in Texas and Illinois.
1849–1856Led Nauvoo Icarian community. Died 1856 in St. Louis, Missouri, after internal rift.
July Monarchy premier who as chief executive in 1871 crushed the Paris Commune and became the Third Republic’s first president
After ordering the suppression of the Paris Commune in 1871, Thiers secured the early departure of German troops from French territory, then resigned in 1873 amid monarchist opposition.
A lawyer and journalist from Marseille who made his name with a History of the French Revolution, he helped bring Louis-Philippe to the throne in 1830 and served the July Monarchy as interior minister and premier, putting down the Lyon silk workers’ and Paris risings of 1834. Under the Second Empire he led the liberal opposition. The National Assembly made him chief executive in February 1871; when the seizure of the Montmartre cannon failed on 18 March he moved the government to Versailles and crushed the Commune in Bloody Week. President from August 1871, he paid off the German indemnity early but was forced out by the monarchist Assembly in 1873.
Career timeline
1823–1827Published his ten-volume History of the French Revolution, establishing his reputation as a historian.
1836Served as prime minister under the July Monarchy.
1840Served as prime minister under the July Monarchy.
1871–1873Served as president of the French Third Republic.
Insurrectionary strategist who spent 37 years in prison; Blanquism paved the road to Leninism
"I am accused of having told thirty million French people, proletarians like me, that they had the right to live." — defence speech at the 'Trial of the Fifteen', 12 January 1832
French revolutionary socialist. He systematised Blanquism (armed insurrection by a disciplined vanguard followed by revolutionary dictatorship) which influenced Marxist theory and the Bolshevik party concept. He spent 37 years in prison and was known as L'Enfermé ('The Prisoner').
Career timeline
1824Joins the Carbonari, a secret society dedicated to overthrowing the monarchy
1827Participates in street protests against Charles X; wounded three times, including a near-fatal bullet wound to the neck
1830Fights in the July Revolution; disillusioned by the Orléanist monarchy, turns to republicanism
1832Founds the 'Amis du peuple' society; arrested — declares his profession 'proletarian' at trial
1837Co-founds the secret 'Société des Saisons' with Armand Barbès and Martin Bernard
1839.05Leads armed insurrection in Paris; crushed, sentenced to death commuted to life imprisonment
1848Released by the February Revolution; founds the Central Republican Society, demands the red flag and postponement of elections
1849–1859Sentenced to ten years for the failed May 15 uprising; imprisoned in multiple facilities
1865–1870Exile in Brussels; writes key theoretical works including 'Instructions for an Armed Uprising'
1870Leads the La Villette insurrection; founds the newspaper and club 'La Patrie en Danger'
1871.03.17Arrested on the eve of the Paris Commune; elected in absentia; Versailles refuses to swap the Archbishop for him
1872Writes the cosmological meditation 'Eternity by the Stars' in Clairvaux prison
1879Elected deputy for Bordeaux (invalidated); released under a general amnesty
1880Launches 'Ni Dieu ni maître' newspaper; tours France for amnesty and abolition of standing armies
Marshal captured at Sedan who led the Versailles army against the Paris Commune and became the president of “Moral Order”
As commander of the Versailles army, he led the suppression of the Paris Commune in May 1871. Elected president in 1873, he headed a “Moral Order” government; after Republicans won a parliamentary majority in 1877, he resigned in 1879.
A soldier from a family of Irish descent, he won his marshal’s baton and dukedom in the conquest of Algeria, the storming of the Malakoff in the Crimea and at Magenta in 1859. In 1870 he led the Army of Châlons to relieve Metz and was wounded and captured with the emperor at Sedan. Released by Germany, he commanded Thiers’s Versailles army, entered Paris in May 1871 and directed the repression and mass executions of Bloody Week. Succeeding Thiers as president in 1873, he led a “Moral Order” government awaiting a restoration, lost the 1877 confrontation with parliament and resigned in 1879.
Career timeline
1827Entered the French Army.
1855Won the Battle of Malakoff during the Siege of Sevastopol in the Crimean War.
1859Contributed to the French victory at Magenta and was made Marshal of France and Duke of Magenta.
1864Was appointed Governor General of Algeria.
1870Commanded French forces in the Franco-Prussian War and was wounded and captured with Napoleon III at Sedan.
1871Became commander of the Versailles army under President Thiers and led the suppression of the Paris Commune in May.
1873Was elected president of the French Third Republic and pursued “Moral Order” policies.
1877–1879After conflict with parliament and a Republican victory in the 1877 election, resigned as president in 1879.
Jacobin journalist of 1830 and 1848 who became the Commune’s war delegate and walked to his death on a barricade
On 25 May 1871, the final day of Bloody Week, Commune war delegate Delescluze walked unarmed to the barricade at the Place du Château-d’Eau and was shot dead amid the fighting.
Born in Dreux, he fought in the July Revolution of 1830, published republican papers after February 1848 and went into exile. Arrested under the Second Empire, he served time in the penal colony of Cayenne in Guiana, and in 1868 founded the newspaper Le Réveil. Elected to the National Assembly in February 1871, he resigned to join the Commune. A Jacobin “independent revolutionary”, he sat on the Commune's Committee of Public Safety and on 11 May became war delegate as a civilian. On 25 May, with defeat certain, he climbed onto the barricade at the Château-d’Eau and was shot dead.
Career timeline
1830Took part in the July Revolution.
1848Worked as a republican journalist after the February Revolution and later went into exile.
1868Founded the newspaper Le Réveil.
1871After election to the National Assembly, resigned and joined the Paris Commune, serving on its Committee of Public Safety and as its war delegate.
Textile designer and poet, a member of the Commune, who wrote the words of “The Internationale” in hiding after Bloody Week
After the Paris Commune's defeat, he wrote the words of “The Internationale” while hiding in Paris in June 1871. In exile in the United States, he organized solidarity for deported Communards.
Born to a Paris box-maker, he worked as a textile designer and wrote songs and poems from the 1830s, taking part in the June Days of 1848. He founded a designers’ union and joined the International. Elected to the Commune in an April 1871 by-election for the 2nd arrondissement, he wrote “The Internationale” in hiding in June after Bloody Week. Condemned to death in absentia, he fled to the United States and returned under the 1880 amnesty. He died poor in 1887; the next year Pierre De Geyter set “The Internationale” to music and it became the anthem of the world labour movement.
Career timeline
1830Composed his first song, “Long Live Liberty.”
1848Took part in the 1848 Revolution.
1864Helped found the textile designers’ union, which later joined the First International.
1871Elected to the Paris Commune, he served on its Public Services Commission and fought during Bloody Week.
1880Returned to France after the amnesty.
1887Chants révolutionnaires, the first collection to print the words of “The Internationale,” was published.
Realist painter who led the Commune’s Federation of Artists and went into Swiss exile blamed for the Vendôme Column
In the 1871 Paris Commune, Courbet chaired the Federation of Artists and served as a councillor, advocating the opening of museums. After its defeat, he was imprisoned for six months over the Vendôme Column’s destruction; a later order to pay reconstruction costs led him into exile in Switzerland.
Born to prosperous farmers in Ornans in the Jura, he launched Realism with A Burial at Ornans and The Stone Breakers and was close to Proudhon; in 1870 he refused the Legion of Honour. As president of the Commune’s Federation of Artists in 1871 he demanded self-government for museums and an end to censorship, and after winning a by-election in the 6th arrondissement he sided with the minority against the Commune's Committee of Public Safety. For proposing to remove the Vendôme Column he was sentenced to six months after Bloody Week; ordered in 1873 to pay for its rebuilding, he fled to Switzerland and died at La Tour-de-Peilz.
Career timeline
1849–1851In works such as The Stonebreakers and A Burial at Ornans, he painted everyday scenes in a large-scale realist style that challenged Paris Salon conventions.
1870He publicly refused the Legion of Honour, declaring his independence from government authority.
1871As president of the Federation of Artists during the Paris Commune, he worked to open museums and organize an exhibition, and served as a councillor.
1873After being ordered to pay 323,000 francs toward rebuilding the Vendôme Column, he left for Switzerland and settled in La Tour-de-Peilz.
French soldier who served as the Paris Commune’s Delegate for War
As the Commune’s Delegate for War, he sought to reorganize the National Guard but was arrested amid conflicts with its leaders.
Cluseret served in the French army, Garibaldi’s volunteers and the Union Army during the American Civil War. As Delegate for War of the Paris Commune in 1871, he sought to reorganize the National Guard but clashed with Commune leaders and was arrested on a charge of betrayal; an ad hoc court acquitted him. He escaped France after the Commune’s defeat, returned under the 1880 amnesty, and was elected a socialist deputy for Toulon in 1888, 1889, 1893 and 1898. He later moved away from socialism and joined the anti-Dreyfus camp.
Career timeline
1823Born in Suresnes, France.
1848As a French army officer, took part in suppressing the June Days uprising.
1860Joined Garibaldi’s volunteers and took part in the Italian unification campaign.
1861–1863Served in the Union Army during the American Civil War and reached brigadier general.
1871As the Paris Commune’s Delegate for War, sought to reorganize the National Guard. Arrested on May 1 amid conflict with its leaders, he was acquitted by an ad hoc court on May 21.
1880Returned to France under the amnesty for Communards.
1888–1898Elected four times as a socialist deputy for Toulon.
French bookbinder and activist in the Women's Union of the Paris Commune
Born in Brest in Brittany, Le Mel worked as a bookbinder in Paris and joined the workers' movement. In 1865 she helped win equal pay for women and men in bookbinding, joined the International Workingmen's Association, and ran the cooperative restaurant La Marmite with Eugène Varlin. During the 1871 Paris Commune she was a leading activist in the Women's Union and fought on the barricades. Arrested after the Commune's defeat, she was deported to New Caledonia with Louise Michel and returned to Paris under the 1880 amnesty.
Career timeline
1865Helped win equal pay for women and men in bookbinding; joined the International Workingmen's Association.
1860s–1871Ran the cooperative restaurant La Marmite with Eugène Varlin.
1871Worked in the Women's Union of the Paris Commune and fought on the barricades.
1871–1880Arrested and deported to New Caledonia; returned to Paris under the 1880 amnesty.
Montmartre teacher who fought on the Commune’s barricades, was deported to New Caledonia and became the anarchist “Red Virgin”
Louise Michel led Montmartre’s Women’s Vigilance Committee and fought in the Paris Commune. Deported to New Caledonia after its defeat, she returned to France in 1880 and devoted herself to workers’ meetings and anarchist activism.
Born in a château in Haute-Marne to a servant, she became a teacher, opened a school in Montmartre in the 1850s and frequented republican and socialist clubs. On 18 March 1871 she turned out to defend the cannon on Montmartre, and during the Commune she served on the vigilance committee, in ambulance work and with a Guard battalion. After Bloody Week she surrendered in place of her mother, demanded death in court and was sentenced to deportation to New Caledonia, where she supported the Kanak revolt of 1878. Amnestied in 1880, she spoke and was jailed again and again as an anarchist, dying on a lecture tour in Marseille in 1905.
Career timeline
1850s–1860sAfter teaching in villages, she moved to Paris in 1856. She opened a school there in 1865, published poetry, associated with Blanquist revolutionaries, and joined efforts for women’s civil rights and girls’ education.
1871During the Paris Commune, she headed the Montmartre Women’s Vigilance Committee, fought with the 61st Montmartre Battalion and organized ambulance stations. During Bloody Week she surrendered to protect her mother. At her military trial she demanded death, but was sentenced to penal transportation to the French colony of New Caledonia.
1873–1880Deported to New Caledonia, she befriended Kanak people, taught French, and supported the 1878 Kanak revolt. She returned to France in 1880 under the amnesty for participants in the Commune.
1880–1905After returning, she spoke at workers’ meetings and demonstrations and continued activism in France and Europe despite repeated imprisonment as an anarchist. She led an unemployed workers’ demonstration in 1883 and co-founded the anarchist periodical Le Libertaire with Sébastien Faure in 1895. She died in Marseille in 1905.
Journalist who fought on the Commune’s last barricade and wrote the History of the Paris Commune of 1871 in exile
French revolutionary socialist journalist Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray took part in the Paris Commune and wrote its history from survivor testimony and documents.
Born in Toulouse to a Basque family, he was a republican lecturer and journalist under the Second Empire and was prosecuted several times. During the 1870 war he joined the military organisation of the provincial government of National Defence, and during the Commune he published the papers L’Action and Le Tribun du peuple in Paris. He fought to the last barricade in Belleville in Bloody Week, escaped to London, grew close to the Marx family and was engaged to Eleanor Marx. He published his History of the Paris Commune of 1871 in Brussels in 1876 and, after the 1880 amnesty, returned to edit La Bataille.
Career timeline
1871Took part in the Paris Commune and founded and edited L’Action and Le Tribun du peuple.
1876Published the first edition of History of the Paris Commune of 1871, drawing on survivors’ testimony and contemporary documents.
Bookbinder who led the Paris International, ran the Commune’s finances and was shot on the last day of Bloody Week
He linked the bookbinders’ union to the First International and helped build a Paris federation of workers’ associations, then organised the Commune’s finances and labour relations. Captured by Versailles forces, he was shot with other prisoners at Montmartre on 28 May 1871.
A peasant’s son who became a bookbinder in Paris, he led the bookbinders’ strike of 1864 and founded mutual-aid societies and the cooperative restaurant La Marmite. The central figure of the International’s Paris section, he was tried twice in 1868 and organised a federation of trade unions. In 1871 he joined the Central Committee of the National Guard and, as a member of the Commune, handled finance and supplies; he belonged to the minority that opposed the Commune's Committee of Public Safety. Captured on 28 May, he was dragged to Montmartre, beaten by a crowd and shot.
Career timeline
1857Helped found a bookbinders’ mutual-aid society.
1864Was a principal organiser of the first Paris bookbinders’ strike.
1869Helped found the Parisian Federation of Workers’ Associations.
1871Elected to the Paris Commune, he became commissioner of finance and handled labour relations.
Radical French prime minister at the end of the First World War who pressed harsh terms on Hungary at the Paris Peace Conference
A physician turned journalist from the Vendée, he became mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris in 1870 and the next year tried to broker a compromise between the Paris Commune and the government. A key figure of the Independent Radicals, he advocated the separation of church and state. As interior minister in 1906 he ordered repressive policies toward the workers’ movement and was nicknamed “the Tiger”, and he was prime minister in 1906–1909 and 1917–1920. Appointed in November 1917 at one of the darkest hours of the war, he demanded total victory over Germany and achieved the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference. Seeking to weaken Hungary as Germany was weakened, he brought about the stringent terms of the Treaty of Trianon. He died in 1929.
French army officer who served as the Paris Commune’s war delegate
He sought to reorganize the Commune’s defenses, but National Guard units largely refused to serve outside their own districts.
Louis-Nathaniel Rossel was a French army officer and the only senior French officer to join the Paris Commune in 1871. As its war delegate, he sought to reorganize the defenses and artillery, but National Guard distrust of centralized command hindered his plans.
Career timeline
1864–1871Served in the French Army.
1871Joined the Paris Commune as war delegate and resigned after nine days.
1871Captured after the Commune’s defeat and executed by firing squad at Versailles on 28 November.
Veteran founder of French Marxist socialism who entered the Union sacrée government in 1914
After war began in 1914, Guesde left the socialist antiwar camp and entered the French government as minister without portfolio. At Stuttgart in 1907 he had rejected special antiwar measures apart from the socialist struggle; wartime office brought that position into government practice.
A journalist exiled for supporting the Paris Commune, he drafted the programme of the French Workers’ Party with Marx in 1880 and became the standard-bearer of French Marxism. He long opposed the reformist Jaurès and took part in founding the unified Socialist Party (SFIO) in 1905. At Stuttgart in 1907 he argued that class struggle would abolish war and that no special anti-war action was needed. In August 1914, seeing France itself in danger, he joined the Union sacrée government as a minister without portfolio and stayed until 1916.
Career timeline
1880Drafted the French Workers’ Party programme with Karl Marx; the party adopted it at its founding congress in November.
1907At the Second International’s Stuttgart Congress, presented the French minority’s resolution rejecting special antiwar measures apart from the general socialist struggle.
1914–1916Entered the French government as minister without portfolio after war broke out and served until 1916.
Blanquist revolutionary and head of the Paris Commune police
“Long live the Commune! Down with the assassins!”
A Blanquist under the Second Empire, Rigault wrote for republican and atheist newspapers and was repeatedly imprisoned for political activity. After the Republic was proclaimed in September 1870, he worked in the political section of the Paris police; following the Commune's uprising, he became head of the police prefecture in March 1871. He served as a Commune councillor and on its General Security Commission, then became its prosecutor in late April, participating in hostage policy and arrests of opponents. During Bloody Week he had the imprisoned lawyer Gustave Chaudey shot; on 24 May 1871, Versailles government troops captured and shot Rigault without trial.
Career timeline
1860sJoined Blanquist and republican circles and contributed to newspapers; repeatedly imprisoned for political activity.
1870Worked as an official in the political section of the Paris police after the Republic was proclaimed in September.
1871Appointed head of the Paris police on 20 March and elected to the Commune on 26 March; served on the General Security Commission and became the Commune's prosecutor in late April.
1871Ordered the execution of Gustave Chaudey during Bloody Week. Captured by Versailles troops on 24 May and shot without trial.
French marshal who as Allied supreme commander in 1918 led the counter-offensive and dictated the armistice
Born into a Catholic family in Tarbes, he made his name commanding the Ninth Army at the Marne in 1914. Facing the German spring offensive in March 1918 he became Allied supreme commander, coordinating the French, British and American armies, and after the Second Battle of the Marne was made marshal and led the counter-offensive that ended the war. In November he received the German armistice at Compiègne. At the peace conference he called for separating the Rhineland, and when this was reduced to a fifteen-year occupation he criticised the Treaty of Versailles as too lenient. For his advice to Poland in the Polish-Soviet War of 1920 he was made a Marshal of Poland. He died in Paris in 1929.
Career timeline
1914Commander of the Ninth Army at the Marne
1918Allied commander-in-chief (26 March); Marshal of France (August)
French commander-in-chief whose failed offensive of 1917 brought on the army mutinies and his dismissal
Born in Tulle, Corrèze, to a French father and an English Protestant mother, he became an artillery officer and served in the Boxer Rebellion. In May 1916 he succeeded Pétain in command of the Second Army at Verdun and led the counter-offensives, but was accused of wasting French lives. Made commander-in-chief on the Western Front in December 1916, he opened the Nivelle Offensive at the Chemin des Dames on 16 April 1917, promising a decisive breakthrough. Casualties reached 134,000 in ten days against the 10,000 he had predicted, yet he pressed on without breaking through. A mutiny spread through roughly half the French Army, and on 15 May he was replaced by Pétain. He was sent off to command in North Africa and died in 1924.
Career timeline
1916.05Commander of the Second Army at Verdun
1916.12Commander-in-chief of the French armies on the Western Front
1917.04Nivelle Offensive
1917.12Commander-in-chief of the French Army in North Africa
A marshal whose Verdun prestige ended in Vichy collaboration
On 17 June 1940, Pétain broadcast that France must cease fighting.
Philippe Pétain was a French general who became a national hero through his command at Verdun and his effort to restore the army’s morale after the 1917 mutinies. In 1940 he opposed continuing the war against Germany and sought an armistice; after parliament granted him constituent powers, he became head of the French State at Vichy and replaced the republic with an authoritarian regime. His government collaborated with Nazi Germany and enacted antisemitic laws, binding French state institutions to the occupation order. After liberation, the High Court condemned him to death for treason and intelligence with the enemy, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment.
Career timeline
1876Entered Saint-Cyr military academy
1916Commanded French forces at Verdun
1917–1918Commander-in-chief of the French Army
1934Minister of War
1939–1940French ambassador to Spain
1940.06President of the Council of Ministers of France
1940–1944Head of the French State at Vichy
1945–1951Convicted of treason and imprisoned for life
French socialist leader who united the left, founded L'Humanité, and was assassinated fighting to prevent the Great War
"In the vat of the Republic, prepare the wine of the Social Revolution!" — to winegrowers at the Maraussan cooperative, 1 May 1905
Jean Jaurès was the central figure in the unification of French socialism, leading the French Socialist Party from 1902 and merging it with Jules Guesde's revolutionary Socialist Party of France in 1905 to create the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). Through L'Humanité, the daily he founded in 1904, he championed reformist social democracy, while during the Dreyfus Affair he stood as the republican conscience against anti-Semitism and militarism. His Marxist class analysis in the multi-volume Socialist History of the French Revolution (1900–1903) left a lasting mark on French revolutionary historiography. In July 1914, he fought to prevent world war through an international general strike with the German Social Democrats, but was assassinated by nationalist Raoul Villain three days before France entered the conflict.
Career timeline
1885Elected to Chamber of Deputies as Opportunist Republican for Tarn
1892–1893Supported Carmaux miners' strike; re-elected as Independent Socialist deputy
1898–1902Leading Dreyfusard voice; edited La Petite République
1902Founded and led the French Socialist Party
1904Founded L'Humanité
1905Unified French socialist parties into SFIO
1900–1903Published Socialist History of the French Revolution
1914Assassinated while leading international anti-war general strike campaign
French Socialist deputy who joined the Union sacrée government as Minister of Public Works in 1914
Born in Bonnières-sur-Seine in Seine-et-Oise, he took a doctorate in law and practised as a lawyer, and as a journalist edited La Petite République. He joined the Blanquist-leaning Central Revolutionary Committee and followed its successor parties into the SFIO in 1905. From 1893 until his death he was re-elected as a Socialist deputy for a working-class district in the 18th arrondissement of Paris. Author of the 1911 pacifist pamphlet Faites un roi, sinon faites la paix, he nevertheless entered Viviani’s Union sacrée government in August 1914 as Minister of Public Works, and kept the post under Briand until December 1916. At the Congress of Tours in 1920 he voted against joining the Third International. He died of a cerebral haemorrhage in Chamonix in 1922.
Career timeline
1890–1897Editor of La Petite République
1893Elected deputy for the Seine
1905Joined the SFIO
1914–1916Minister of Public Works (Union sacrée government)
1920Voted against joining the Third International at Tours
The voice of Action Française, the polemicist who pushed a scandal from the page into the street day after day
Through January 1934 his columns called out the implicated deputies one by one, and on the morning of 6 February the paper urged its readers to come to the Chamber that evening. At the front of the columns that filled the square that night were the Camelots du Roi, the action squads of Action Française
The son of the novelist Alphonse Daudet, a medical student turned polemicist, who founded the daily Action Française with Maurras and set its tone. He sat as a deputy for Paris from 1919 to 1924, and his method of personal attack and denunciation left its mark on a generation of French political language. After losing a libel case brought over his claim that the police had killed his son Philippe in 1923, he fled to Belgium in 1927 and returned under an amnesty in 1930. In January 1934 he printed the names of the politicians touched by the Stavisky affair day after day, building the picture of a 'republic of thieves' that carried the paper's readers to the square on 6 February.
Career timeline
1867–1890Born in Paris, son of Alphonse Daudet; studies medicine
1900–1908Turns royalist and joins Action Française
1908–1942Co-founder and leading writer of the daily Action Française
1919–1924Deputy for Paris
1923–1927The lawsuits over his son Philippe's death; convicted of libel and flees to Belgium
1930Returns under an amnesty
1934.01–02The press offensive over the Stavisky affair that produced the demonstration of 6 February
From Foch's brilliant staff officer to a general of defeat and accommodation
On 12 June 1940, Weygand advised the French government to capitulate.
Maxime Weygand was a French general who served as Ferdinand Foch's key staff officer in the First World War, coordinating Allied operations and reading the armistice terms to the German delegation in 1918. Between the wars he carried French military influence in Poland and the Levant, then became commander-in-chief of the French armies in May 1940 and, after the German breakthrough, judged that continued fighting in metropolitan France was no longer feasible and advised an armistice. He joined the Vichy government and later directed French North Africa, choosing limited accommodation with Germany while enforcing antisemitic measures harshly. Detained after the war on treason charges and cleared in 1948, he later defended Marshal Pétain's memory.
Career timeline
1885–1888Studied at Saint-Cyr and the Saumur Cavalry School
1914–1918Chief of staff to Foch and senior staff officer at Allied Supreme Headquarters
1918Read the armistice terms at the Compiègne negotiations
1920Military adviser to the Inter-Allied Mission in Poland
1923–1924High Commissioner of the Levant
1931–1935Vice-president of France's Superior War Council and Inspector-General of the Army
1940.05–06Commander-in-chief of the French armies; advised an armistice
1940.06–1941.11Vichy Minister for Defence and Delegate-General in North Africa
1942–1945Held by Germany, including internment at Itter Castle
The brain of Action Française, the royalist theorist who denied the republic itself in the name of integral nationalism
'It is the revenge of Dreyfus!', on hearing his life sentence in the court at Lyon, 27 January 1945
A poet and polemicist from Martigues in Provence, deaf from his youth, who led Action Française for half a century after the movement formed out of the Dreyfus affair. His 'integral nationalism' called for the restoration of the monarchy and the abolition of the parliamentary republic, and named Jews, Protestants, Freemasons and foreigners as the 'four confederate states' eating France from within. The movement survived the Vatican's condemnation of 1926, and in 1938 he was elected to the Académie Française. Through January 1934 his paper named 'the thieves' day after day, and on the morning of 6 February it called on its readers to come to the Chamber that evening. He welcomed Pétain's accession in 1940 as a 'divine surprise', backed Vichy, and denounced resisters and Jews in print throughout the occupation. In January 1945 he was sentenced to life imprisonment and national degradation for collusion with the enemy.
Career timeline
1868–1890Born at Martigues; loses his hearing; begins writing in Paris
1899–1908Joins Action Française out of the Dreyfus affair; the daily is founded in 1908
1908–1939Theorist of integral nationalism, shaping the whole of the French far right
1926The Vatican condemns Action Française
1934.01–02Press offensive over the Stavisky affair; calls for the demonstration of 6 February
1938Elected to the Académie Française
1940–1944Backs Vichy; denounces resisters and Jews in print
1945.01Sentenced to life and national degradation for collusion with the enemy
1952Released in ill health and dies at Tours the same year
