Activities and affiliations

Industry and production Affiliation unconfirmed 1874–1934 ○ Illness

The perfume magnate who bought both the far-right leagues and a mass newspaper

In 1928 he launched a daily at ten centimes a copy and drove its circulation toward a million. The paper lost money, which was not the point: it was cheap enough to be read everywhere, and the language grown on its pages became the language of the columns that filled the square in February 1934

A Corsican who built the largest fortune in the European perfume industry of his day. He bought Le Figaro in 1922 and founded the cheap mass daily L'Ami du peuple in 1928, using both as instruments of anticommunist, antisemitic and antiparliamentary agitation. He financed Georges Valois's Faisceau and the early Croix-de-Feu, and in 1933 created and funded Solidarité Française outright. His career is a large part of the answer to the question that hangs over the French leagues of the 1930s: who paid for them. The organisation he had founded was on the Place de la Concorde as a column on 6 February 1934, and he died that July, ruined by a divorce settlement and his debts.

Industry and production Affiliation unconfirmed 1875–1949 ○ Natural causes

The capitalist who gave his workers a nine-hour day and built the Progressive Bloc to challenge the autocracy

On 16 May 1917, addressing the congress of military-industrial committees, he warned: "Anti-state tendencies, masking their true essence under a slogan hypnotizing the masses, are leading Russia in giant strides toward catastrophe."

One of Russia's largest textile magnates, he was a pioneering industrialist who introduced a nine-hour working day, worker housing, schools, and hospitals as early as 1900. As founder of the Progressist Party and Deputy Chairman of the Fourth Duma, he organized the Progressive Bloc during World War I, making himself the parliamentary opposition's central figure against the tsarist autocracy. After the February Revolution he served twice as Minister of Trade and Industry in the Provisional Government and, as Kerensky's deputy premier, chaired the cabinet meeting that was arrested at the Winter Palace on the day of the October Revolution. He spent his later decades in French emigration as chairman of Milyukov's newspaper Последние новости and a leading voice of left-liberal émigré politics.

Industry and production Affiliation unconfirmed 1878–1946 ○ Natural causes

A military organizer who bridged industry and war

Mannerheim remembered him as a colleague whose industrial experience and ability to organize an army were both needed by Finland.

Rudolf Walden was a Finnish industrialist who helped build the paper industry and became a military and state organizer. His work organizing the White rear and supply system in the 1918 civil war led to a long partnership with Mannerheim, and during the Winter War he represented headquarters in the cabinet. After the war he became defence minister and signed the Moscow Peace Treaty for Finland, helping manage a state that had lost territory while preserving its independence. Conservative toward organized labour, he shifted during the Winter War toward recognizing trade unions as legitimate negotiating partners in a national emergency.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1880–1949 ○ Natural causes

Founder of Soviet firearms design, creator of the DP-27, DShK, and PTRD

In May 1943, Stalin asked him which machine gun to adopt. Degtyaryov chose not his own DS-39 but Goryunov's rival SG-43: 'The SG-43 is unquestionably the superior model.'

The son of hereditary Tula gunsmiths with three years of parish schooling, Degtyaryov rose from tsarist army private to founder of Soviet firearms design. Learning automatic weapons as Fyodorov's assistant, he headed the USSR's first firearms design bureau at Kovrov from 1918 and completed the DP-27 light machine gun in 1927, the Red Army's standard squad automatic through 1945. Nineteen of his designs entered service including the DShK, PPD, PTRD-41, and RPD, while his bureau became the Degtyaryov Plant (ZiD), still a major Russian arms manufacturer. Second-ever Hero of Socialist Labour after Stalin, four-time Stalin Prize winner, and Major General, Degtyaryov drew the genealogy of Soviet infantry weapons from the 1920s through 1945.

Industry and production Affiliation unconfirmed 1883–1907 ✕ Suspicious death in prison

The young furniture-factory heir whose plant became the heart of the Presnya uprising

Arrested and taken to the Semyonovsky regiment camp, Shmit was stood against a wall and threatened with execution on the spot; broken by days of sleep deprivation and interrogation, he finally confessed.

Heir to a Moscow furniture factory who threw himself into the 1905 Revolution, turning his plant into an arsenal, hospital, and morgue for workers' fighting squads and providing the material base for the Presnya armed uprising. He introduced a nine-hour workday and wage increases, and gave 20,000 rubles to the RSDLP for arming the workers. Arrested after the December uprising was crushed, he was tortured and died under suspicious circumstances in Butyrka prison; his inheritance of about 280,000 rubles became a critical financial foundation for the Bolsheviks.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1883–1947 ○ Arrested 1940, posthumously rehabilitated

Vyborg worker-Bolshevik who handed Lenin his party card

On the night of 3 April 1917 at the Finland Station, representing the Vyborg district committee, he handed Lenin, just back from exile, party membership card No. 600.

A veteran of the 1905 Sormovo barricade fighting who studied at Lenin's Longjumeau party school in 1911, Chugurin was, alongside Kayurov and Pavlov, one of the Vyborg Bolshevik nucleus that drove the February 1917 street actions from the Women's Day strikes into armed insurrection. He personally handed Lenin party card No. 600 at the Finland Station upon his return from exile, served on the Vyborg district uprising headquarters during October, and later headed the political department of the 5th Army and held posts in the Cheka presidium. Arrested on fabricated charges in 1940, he emerged from the camps ill and worked as a tinsmith until his death; he was rehabilitated posthumously.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1884–1938 ✕ Executed

The "Soviet Rockefeller" who rebuilt Baku oil and organized the Soviet gold rush

In 1924, on an Azneft trip authorized by Krasin, he mixed equipment purchases with a personal appeal: at 90, John D. Rockefeller listened, then unexpectedly agreed to a guarantee letter. After tea he took Serebrovsky on a brisk half-hour walk through his forest park.

A mechanical engineer turned revolutionary, Serebrovsky rebuilt the war-ravaged Baku oil fields with American drilling technology, laying the foundation for Soviet petroleum production. From 1928 he headed Glavzoloto, the state gold-mining trust, where he imported Alaskan techniques and recruited American engineers like John Littlepage to expand gold output: bullion that financed machinery imports for industrialization. As deputy People's Commissar of Heavy Industry he oversaw Soviet heavy industry until his arrest on 23 September 1937, execution on 10 February 1938 after conviction by the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court, and posthumous rehabilitation on 19 May 1956.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1886–1937 ✕ Gunshot death, attributed to suicide

Commander of the industrial front: he pulled the trigger himself

Around his fiftieth birthday in October 1936, shaken by news of his brother Papulia's arrest, he refused to attend the celebration held in his honour at Pyatigorsk; his wife Zinaida went alone.

An Old Bolshevik who joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1903, he was elected to the Central Committee at the Prague conference of 1912 and became a full Politburo member in 1930. He directed the Sovietization of the Caucasus and the creation of the Transcaucasian Federation, headed the Central Control Commission and Rabkrin in 1926–30 and the Supreme Economic Council in 1930–32, then led the First and Second Five-Year Plans as People's Commissar of Heavy Industry from 1932. At the commissariat he opposed mass repression in his own branch and shielded his cadres; he died in Moscow on 18 February 1937, with the official announcement giving heart failure as the cause. The purge of his deputies and relatives, and the circumstances of his death, are recorded alongside competing accounts of how he died.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1887–1937 ✕ Executed

First People's Commissar of Posts and Telegraphs who later built Rostselmash, flagship of Soviet agricultural machinery

In June 1918 at Novorossiysk, as Commissar of the Black Sea Fleet, he ordered the fleet scuttled rather than surrendered to the Germans, instructing sailors: "Moscow will radio orders to sail to Sevastopol for diplomatic reasons — do not count that radio as an order."

Nikolai Glebov-Avilov was a Bolshevik revolutionary from 1904 who ran underground printshops during the 1905 Revolution. After October 1917 he became the first People's Commissar of Posts and Telegraphs in the inaugural Sovnarkom, then served as VTsSPS secretary and chairman of the Petrograd Trade Union Council, emerging as a central figure in Bolshevik trade union politics. At the Fourteenth Party Congress in 1925 he led the Leningrad Opposition alongside Grigory Zinoviev and was removed; he later became first director of Rostselmash (1929–1936), building the Soviet Union's flagship agricultural machinery plant. Arrested in the Great Purge, he was executed in 1937 and rehabilitated in 1956.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1888–1941 ✕ Suicide

Builder of Soviet defence industry in the shadow of his brother Lazar

1 July 1941, Mikoyan's office. Confronted with a confession extracted by torture, he stepped outside to wait — and shot himself in the lavatory before they could arrest him.

A Bolshevik metalworker, he rose through Ordzhonikidze's heavy-industry apparatus to become People's Commissar for Defence Industry (1937–1939) and Aviation Industry (1939–1940), building the organizational framework of Soviet military production during the Great Purge. Elder brother of Lazar Kaganovich, he was notorious for a loud, lecturing style and dependence on talented deputies; dismissed in 1940, he shot himself in the lavatory of Mikoyan's office just after the German invasion, when Vannikov under torture falsely implicated him.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1888–1972 ○ Natural causes

"Ugly planes don't fly." The father of Soviet metal aviation.

Shown a model, Tupolev pronounced: "It's ugly. Ugly planes don't fly." The maxim became his lifelong creed — "Only beautiful airplanes fly well."

A student of Zhukovsky who built the world's first all-metal aircraft design bureau. Over 100 types flowed from his KB: the TB-1, TB-3, SB, and Tu-2 defined Soviet military aviation, while his all-metal stressed-skin philosophy reshaped the industry. Arrested in 1937 on charges of espionage, he designed the Tu-2 inside an NKVD sharashka. After the war came the Tu-16, the Tu-104 (the USSR's first jet airliner), the Tu-114, and the Tu-144, the world's first supersonic passenger aircraft. He mentored Korolev, Sukhoi, Petlyakov, Lavochkin, and Mil, a whole generation of Soviet aerospace. Three-time Hero of Socialist Labor, he died a natural death in 1972.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1889–1938 ✕ Executed

The industrial builder Lenin trusted; first People's Commissar for Defence Industry

On 1 October 1921 Lenin sent Rukhimovich, then Donetsk Gubernial Executive Committee chairman and manager of the Donugol and Khimugol trusts, a letter on the leasing out of small and medium Donbas mines.

Born in 1889 in the Rostov region to a worker's family, Rukhimovich entered the Social-Democratic movement in 1904 and was active in the Jewish Social-Democratic Workers' Party, the Bund. After emigration from 1906 to 1909 he worked in Ukraine, joined the party in 1913 and was mobilized into the army in 1914. As Donetsk Gubernial Executive Committee chairman and then Donugol Trust manager in the 1920s he directed emergency measures to restore Donbas coal extraction, later developed Kuzbass coal and served as Deputy Commissar for Heavy Industry. On 8 December 1936 he became first People's Commissar of the new Defence Industry Commissariat, was removed on 15 October 1937, shot the following year and rehabilitated in 1956.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1891–1942 ✕ Air crash

The prisoner who gave the Red Air Force its finest tactical bomber: Pe-2, born in a sharashka

In the spring of 1940, Petlyakov watched the test flight of his Pe-2 from the roof of his prison workshop. He was still an inmate.

The right hand of Andrei Tupolev who designed the wings of the TB-1, TB-3 heavy bombers and the ANT-20 Maxim Gorky. Arrested with Tupolev in 1937 on fabricated sabotage charges, he continued designing inside an NKVD sharashka. When Lavrentiy Beria ordered his high-altitude VI-100 fighter converted into a dive bomber, Petlyakov delivered the Pe-2 in 45 days: a machine that became the Red Air Force's most important tactical bomber throughout the Great Patriotic War. Released in 1940, awarded the Stalin Prize (1st class) in 1941, he died the following year when the Pe-2 carrying him to Moscow for production talks crashed near Arzamas.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1892–1944 ○ Stomach cancer

The 'King of Fighters' who dominated Soviet fighter aviation for a decade

Returning from his 1939 delegation to Germany, Polikarpov found his design bureau gone — his engineers, I-200 project, and factory had all been transferred to the newly formed MiG OKB.

Soviet aircraft designer known as the 'King of Fighters.' His I-15 biplane and revolutionary I-16 monoplane formed the backbone of Soviet fighter aviation (1934–1941), seeing combat in Spain, China, Khalkhin Gol, and the early Great Patriotic War. Arrested in 1929 on fabricated sabotage charges and sentenced to death, he was reprieved to work at OGPU prison design bureau TsKB-39, where he produced the I-5; amnestied in 1931, fully rehabilitated posthumously in 1956. During his 1939 delegation to Germany, his bureau was transferred to Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich to form the MiG OKB; he rebuilt OKB-51 and continued designing advanced fighters. He also created the U-2 (Po-2), over 30,000 built.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1892–1957 ○ Natural causes

Stalin's chief hydraulic engineer who designed the Gulag canal network

Arrested in 1931 and sent to the White Sea–Baltic Canal, he was paroled after 18 months 'for more effective use in construction.' A former White Army prisoner, he was buried in the Kremlin Wall as a Hero of Socialist Labor two decades later.

Soviet hydraulic engineer and Major General of the Engineering-Technical Service. A former White Army officer, he was arrested in 1931 and sent to build the White Sea–Baltic Canal, where his engineering talent earned him early release and expungement in 1932. He went on to design and supervise the Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, the Kuibyshev hydroelectric station, and the Rybinsk-Uglich hydro system, the defining hydraulic constructions of Stalin-era infrastructure. As director of the Gidroproekt Institute (1942–1957) and chief engineer of Glavgidrostroy NKVD, he built the institutional foundation of Soviet hydraulic engineering. His reliance on forced labor drew Solzhenitsyn's condemnation, yet he remains the practical architect of the USSR's inland waterway network and hydroelectric backbone.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1893–1976 ○ Natural causes

Co-founder of MiG: the Soviet Union's foremost fighter designer who never joined the Communist Party

Toulouse, 1913. Gurevich's classmate at the aeronautics school was Marcel Bloch. Thirty years later, one would design the MiG-15, the other the Mirage — two Jewish fighter designers who once shared a classroom, now facing each other across the Cold War sky.

Born to a Jewish family in Kursk province, expelled from Kharkiv University for revolutionary activity, he studied aeronautics in France. In 1939 he co-founded OKB-155 (MiG) with Artyom Mikoyan, serving as Vice Chief Designer (1939–1957) and Chief Designer (1957–1964), working on every MiG from the MiG-1 through MiG-25. The MiG-3 was a mainstay early in the German-Soviet war; the MiG-15 seized air superiority over Korea; the MiG-25 remains the fastest interceptor ever fielded. Hero of Socialist Labor, six Stalin Prizes, Lenin Prize: the only top-tier Soviet military designer never to join the Communist Party.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1894–1977 ○ Natural causes

Founder of Ilyushin OKB. His Il-2 Sturmovik remains the most-produced combat aircraft in history

In late 1941, as Il-2 production lagged, Stalin telegraphed the factory: "The Il-2 is as necessary to the Red Army as air, as bread."

Youngest son of a Vologda peasant, he left home at fifteen and first encountered aviation as a field hand leveling an aerodrome in 1910. After graduating from the Zhukovsky Air Force Academy, he founded his own design bureau in 1933 and produced the Il-2 Sturmovik: 36,183 built, the decisive ground-attack weapon of the Eastern Front. Postwar he rebuilt Soviet civil aviation with the Il-12, Il-14, Il-18, and the jet-era Il-62. The only person to receive seven Stalin Prizes and three Hero of Socialist Labor stars, he led the Ilyushin OKB for 37 years.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1895–1975 ○ Natural causes

Founder of the Sukhoi Design Bureau, the man behind the Su-7, Su-24, and Su-27

Walking home from the gymnasium in Gomel, the boy Pavel saw an airplane cross the sky and his breath caught. He climbed into the attic that same day and began building a model. "It was not a bird — a man was flying above us!"

A Soviet aircraft designer of Belarusian peasant stock who entered aviation as Tupolev's student at the Moscow Technical School. He founded the Sukhoi Design Bureau (OKB-51) in 1939 and delivered the Su-2 light bomber, only to see his bureau liquidated in 1949 after falling from Stalin's favor. Re-established in 1953 after Stalin's death, his OKB produced the backbone of Cold War Soviet tactical aviation: the Su-7 fighter-bomber (the main strike aircraft of the 1960s), the Su-9 and Su-15 interceptors, and the variable-sweep Su-17 and Su-24. Admired by peers for his technical foresight, Sukhoi launched the Su-27 program, which became one of the world's premier fighters. Twice Hero of Socialist Labor, winner of the Lenin and Stalin Prizes, he served as a Deputy of the USSR Supreme Soviet from 1958 to 1974.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1896–1956 ○ Natural causes

Father of the Soviet auto industry, the 'red director' who told Henry Ford he was a servant of the people

At lunch with Henry Ford in 1930: "I am not an industrialist — I am a servant of the people. My director's post was not inherited; I hold it by the will of my party."

A Tula peasant's son who rose from Putilov apprentice to architect of Soviet mass automobile production. As director of the Moscow Auto Plant (AMO/ZIS) from 1926, he turned a small backward factory into Europe's largest automotive works and introduced the USSR's first assembly line. During WWII he evacuated the plant eastward, building new factories in four cities while keeping trucks and weapons flowing to the front. He won the 1949 Stalin Prize for a method of switching assembly lines to a new model without halting production. The plant was renamed ZIL in his honour.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1897–1962 ○ Natural causes

Ammunition and atomic administrator under Beria

"Comrade Stalin, you were imprisoned by enemies, but I was imprisoned by our own."

Born to a Jewish oil worker's family in Baku, he rose from engineer to People's Commissar of Armaments in 1939. Arrested and tortured just before the war, he was summoned by Stalin after the German invasion and appointed Commissar of Ammunition, quadrupling shell production by war's end. After the war, he led the First Main Directorate alongside Kurchatov, building the administrative and industrial foundation of the Soviet atomic bomb project, and later oversaw hydrogen bomb development. He was one of the very few awarded the Hero of Socialist Labor three times.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1897–1993 ○ Natural causes

First People's Commissar for Construction, who built wartime industry from the ground up

When Stalin named him first People's Commissar for Construction in 1939, Ginzburg disclosed his party reprimand. Stalin replied: 'People with tuberculosis live and work perfectly well — live with the reprimand.'

First to unify Soviet construction into a single state apparatus. Born in Minsk to a Jewish family, he joined the Bolsheviks in 1917, studied at MVTU, designed the structures of Lenin's Mausoleum, and headed construction under Ordzhonikidze at the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry. As the inaugural People's Commissar of Наркомстрой in 1939, he brought the nation's scattered construction capacity under unified command; when war came, he directed the emergency relocation of defense plants to Siberia, the 75-day construction of the Chebarkul steelworks, and the laying of a 30-km underwater gasoline pipeline across Lake Ladoga, all under enemy fire. He remained central to Soviet construction until 1970, serving as minister of military construction, construction materials, and chairman of Stroybank.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1898–1938 ✕ Executed

Father of the Katyusha rocket, the engineer who perfected the RS‑82 and RS‑132 and coined the word 'cosmonautics'

During the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion, mutineers arrested Langemak and sentenced him to death. He was held from 2 March to 18 April and freed only after the Red Army crushed the uprising — twenty years before he would build the rockets that became the Katyusha.

Of German descent, Langemak began developing smokeless-powder rockets at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL) and, as chief engineer of the Rocket Research Institute (RNII, 1934–1938), brought the RS-82 and RS-132 solid-fuel rockets to operational readiness. These became the core munition of the BM-13 Katyusha multiple rocket launcher: one of the most iconic Soviet weapons of World War II. He introduced the term 'cosmonautics' into the Russian language and corresponded with Tsiolkovsky about the peaceful space applications of rocketry. Arrested on false charges during the Great Purge in 1937, he was shot on 11 January 1938, rehabilitated in 1955, and posthumously made a Hero of Socialist Labor in 1991.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1898–1940 ○ Pneumonia

The chief designer who birthed the T-34 and died of pneumonia at 41

March 1940: he personally drove two unfinished T-34 prototypes 750 km through the snow to the Kremlin, started the engines before Stalin, and collapsed with pneumonia after the return journey.

A Soviet tank designer born to a peasant family, he began as a confectionery apprentice and only turned to engineering at 30. At the Kharkov Locomotive Plant he led modernization of the BT series of light tanks, then pushed the purely tracked A-32 project through, a design that matured into the T-34. In March 1940 he personally drove two unfinished prototypes 750 km through snow from Kharkov to Moscow, presenting them to Stalin at the Kremlin. The ordeal gave him pneumonia; he died at 41, nine months before the German invasion. His T-34 became the backbone of Soviet armored forces throughout the war.

Industry and production Soviet Union state institutions 1898–1963 ○ Stroke

The NKVD construction general who built the Mayak plutonium complex

At Tomsk-7 the first thing he got under way was not the reactor but the bread factory. 'I'll find you a mason,' he told the construction chief, and personally brought back a bricklayer from among the prisoners.

A Cheka cavalryman turned NKVD construction general, he commanded the building of Chelyabinsk-40 (Mayak), the plutonium production complex at the heart of the Soviet atomic project. From 1947 he integrated ITL No. 859 prison camp and military engineer units under a single command, and by 1948 the construction workforce reached 45,000: the industrial reactor and radiochemical plant were brought into operation within three years, delivering the plutonium for the first Soviet bomb test of 1949. He went on to build key nuclear sites at Krasnoyarsk-26, Tomsk-7, Dubna, and Protvino, and was awarded Hero of Socialist Labor (1949) and the Stalin Prize (1951).