People of the Revolution and the USSR

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1936 ○ Died in prison

Red Army commander who was chief of staff of the Tambov suppression and became a historian of the Civil War

Born in Oryol in 1883 into a hereditary noble family of army officers, he graduated from the Nicholas General Staff Academy and in the First World War served as acting chief of staff of a division. In 1918 he joined the army of the Ukrainian People's Republic and in 1919 the Ukrainian Galician Army. Joining the Red Army in 1920, he commanded the 10th Division and the 3rd Army in the Polish–Soviet War; in 1921, as chief of staff of the Tambov forces under Mikhail Tukhachevsky, he co-signed Order No. 0116 on the use of poison gas against the insurgents. He joined the Communist Party the same year. In 1923 he became head of the Civil War history department at the Red Army Staff and was one of the authors of a three-volume history of the Civil War. Arrested in 1930, he died in Yaroslavl prison in 1936.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1938 ✕ Executed

The Baltic Fleet political commissar whose 'explosion' warning foreshadowed the Kronstadt revolt

Sent to persuade the mutinous Kronstadt sailors, he was arrested and imprisoned instead.

A Bolshevik since 1903, he was a military political commissar who served on the revolutionary military councils of several fronts during the Civil War before heading the Baltic Fleet's political department in 1921. At an enlarged session of the Petrograd Soviet on 26 February 1921 he warned that rebellious moods were spreading among the sailors and that an 'explosion' would erupt unless the Petrograd strikes were stopped. During the Kronstadt rebellion he was sent to persuade the mutineers and was arrested; in the 1937 terror he refused to confess and was shot the following year.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1883–1938 ✕ Executed

An early Bolshevik responsible secretary later put in the dock

On the first day of the Third Moscow Trial, March 1938, Krestinsky rose and declared: 'I am not a Trotskyite and was never a member of the anti-Soviet bloc.' Across all three Moscow show trials, it was the only open-court repudiation of a confession.

Born in Mogilev to a teacher's family, Krestinsky trained as a lawyer before becoming a Bolshevik revolutionary. He led the party in Yekaterinburg, joined the first Politburo, and after Sverdlov's death served as Responsible Secretary (effectively party leader) from 1919 to 1921. His support for Trotsky in the trade union debate cost him his posts. He spent nine years as Soviet plenipotentiary in Germany, the republic's most important diplomatic mission, before his arrest in the Great Purge. At the Third Moscow Trial he alone repudiated his confession in open court, the only defendant across all three show trials to do so.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1938 ✕ Executed

The security viceroy of the Far East

On 11 August 1937, Yezhov forwarded Lyushkov's telegram to Stalin, who scribbled in the margin: 'Deribas will have to be arrested. St.' Molotov and Voroshilov added 'For,' and Deribas was arrested the next day.

An old Bolshevik Chekist who served as OGPU-NKVD plenipotentiary for the Far East from 1929, directing the Maki-Mirage counter-intelligence operation against Japan and forced-labour construction of the BAM. After eight years as the region's 'viceroy,' he was swept up in the Great Purge and shot in 1938.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1939 ✕ Executed

The Southern Front commander who broke Denikin: the last of the first five marshals whose name was erased

“I am clean before the people, the Party, and the Red Army”: his letter to Stalin, March 1938

A career officer who earned the Gold Sword for Bravery and six other decorations in the First World War, Yegorov commanded the Southern Front in the Civil War and routed Denikin's White forces, then led the Southwestern Front in the Polish-Soviet War. As Chief of the General Staff from 1931, he pushed for mechanization and tank-warfare doctrine, and in 1935 became one of the first five Marshals of the Soviet Union. He fell from Stalin's favour in late 1937, was arrested in 1938, and was shot on Red Army Day 1939, without a public trial.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1940 ✕ Executed

Architect of Soviet foreign intelligence: seven years that built the INO

Disguised as a history professor in Berlin to meet a key agent, Trilisser owned exactly one suit. Shirts, ties, and a new jacket were procured in haste.

Born to a poor cobbler's family in Astrakhan, he joined the RSDLP at eighteen and became a professional revolutionary. He led Bolshevik combat squads in Kazan and St. Petersburg, organized the Sveaborg uprising, and spent five years at hard labor in the Shlisselburg Fortress. From 1922 to 1929, as chief of the GPU/OGPU Foreign Department (INO), he built the foundations of Soviet foreign intelligence: creating residencies, recruiting agent networks, and launching economic and technical espionage. He rose to deputy chairman of the OGPU in 1926. Arrested in 1938, he was shot in 1940 and posthumously rehabilitated in 1956.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1883–1941 ✕ Executed

Trotsky's sister and Kamenev's wife: the architect of Soviet cultural diplomacy with the West

In 1927, Sergei Prokofiev visited her in the Kremlin and wrote in his diary: 'Olga Davidovna herself seemed to be a lively, agreeable, somewhat American-style lady.'

A Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet cultural administrator, sister of Leon Trotsky and first wife of Lev Kamenev. As head of the Theater Division (TEO) of Narkompros from 1918, she worked with Vsevolod Meyerhold to radicalize Russian theater under Bolshevik control, and as chairman of VOKS (1925–1928) she built the framework of Soviet cultural diplomacy, hosting Western intellectuals including Le Corbusier and Theodore Dreiser. She also ran a leading Moscow literary salon in the 1920s and served on the board of the Party Women's Section, but lost all positions after her husband and brother fell from power in 1927 and was shot in the Medvedev forest massacre near Oryol in 1941.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1947 ○ Arrested 1940, posthumously rehabilitated

Vyborg worker-Bolshevik who handed Lenin his party card

On the night of 3 April 1917 at the Finland Station, representing the Vyborg district committee, he handed Lenin, just back from exile, party membership card No. 600.

A veteran of the 1905 Sormovo barricade fighting who studied at Lenin's Longjumeau party school in 1911, Chugurin was, alongside Kayurov and Pavlov, one of the Vyborg Bolshevik nucleus that drove the February 1917 street actions from the Women's Day strikes into armed insurrection. He personally handed Lenin party card No. 600 at the Finland Station upon his return from exile, served on the Vyborg district uprising headquarters during October, and later headed the political department of the 5th Army and held posts in the Cheka presidium. Arrested on fabricated charges in 1940, he emerged from the camps ill and worked as a tinsmith until his death; he was rehabilitated posthumously.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1951 ○ Natural causes

Official publisher of Pravda who rose from Duma deputy to nominal head of the Russian republic

When war broke out, Badayev and the Bolshevik Duma deputies voted against war credits, and the Petersburg Committee issued its first anti-war proclamation: 'Down with war! War against war!'

A Petersburg locksmith turned Bolshevik deputy to the Fourth State Duma, Badayev served as the official publisher of Pravda at Lenin's direction, using his parliamentary immunity as a legal shield for the party newspaper. Exiled to Turukhansk with the Bolshevik Duma faction for anti-war activity in 1914, he returned after the February Revolution and took charge of food supply for Petrograd and the Northern Region. Under Stalin he rose through the cooperative movement and food industry commissariat to become Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (1938–1944), the republic's formal head of state during the war years, while also serving as Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. He authored the widely translated memoir 'Bolsheviks in the State Duma' (1929), and the Badayev Warehouses in Leningrad remain a lasting toponym.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1954 ○ Natural causes

Stalin's Moscow-trial prosecutor who later carried hardline Soviet diplomacy to the UN

At the UN General Assembly on 18 September 1947, then only Deputy Foreign Minister, Vyshinsky denounced the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan for using relief "as an instrument of political pressure."

Born in Odessa into a Polish szlachta (gentry) family, he moved to Baku as a child and joined the Menshevik wing of the RSDLP in 1903; arrested twice in 1906–1907 and sentenced by a Tiflis court in 1908 to a year in Bailov prison, where he met Stalin. He graduated from Kiev University in 1913, practiced law, and joined the Bolsheviks in 1920. He was RSFSR prosecutor (1931), Deputy Procurator (1933) and Procurator of the USSR (1935–1939), and served as state prosecutor in all three Moscow processes of 1936–1938. From May 1939 he was Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, and from 1940 to 1946 First Deputy People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs; he effectively directed the Soviet delegation at Nuremberg. As Minister of Foreign Affairs (1949–1953) and then permanent representative to the UN (1953–1954), he died of a heart attack in New York on 22 November 1954.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1883–1954 ○ Gallstones

The eraser poised over party rolls for thirty years

January 1948, the musicians' summons at the Kremlin. As Zhdanov lectured, Shkiryatov ordered Prokofiev to pay attention. Prokofiev replied: "I never pay attention to people who haven't been introduced to me."

A Bolshevik since 1906, he began underground work among Moscow garment workers. From 1921, when he executed Lenin's first party verification, he spent three decades as Stalin's standing operational enforcer in the Central Control Commission and Party Control Committee, prosecuting Bukharin and Rykov, arresting the entire Chechen-Ingush leadership, and exiling Molotov's wife, rising to chairman of the Party Control Committee and CC Presidium member in 1952, only to be dropped from the Presidium a month after Stalin died.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1883–1958 ○ Esophageal cancer

Classic writer of socialist realism who pioneered the Soviet industrial novel with Cement

This is Workers' Russia; this is us; the new world of which mankind has dreamed throughout the centuries. — from Cement

Born into an Old Believer peasant family and radicalized as a teacher and underground revolutionary, Gladkov drew on his direct experience restoring the Novorossiysk cement works during the Civil War to write Cement (1925). The first Soviet industrial novel to dramatize post-revolutionary reconstruction, depicting the ruined factory as an arena of class, gender, and bureaucratic conflict, it became a canonical text of socialist realism and the prototype of the production novel.

Soviet communism 1883–1960 ○ Heart attack

Father of Soviet ferrous metallurgy who built Kuznetsk

A chemistry student, young Bardin wandered into Professor Izhevsky's lecture and resolved: 'I will be a blast-furnace operator.' Thirty years later, that resolve was Europe's largest steelworks.

A village tailor's son, Bardin studied metallurgy at Kyiv Polytechnic and learned steelmaking as a labourer in American mills. A disciple of blast-furnace master Mikhail Kurako, he rebuilt the works of Yuzovka, Yenakiyevo, Makeyevka, and Kamenskoye, then as chief engineer of the Kuznetsk Combine (1929–1937) erected Europe's largest blast furnaces in 1,000 days. Made a full Academician in 1932 without a single paper, he was vice-president of the Academy of Sciences from 1942. In wartime he concentrated Ural science on defence; afterwards he championed oxygen-converter steelmaking and continuous casting. A non-party figure the security organs never touched, he adopted eleven children of his repressed colleagues.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1960 ○ Natural causes

From prisoner to directorate chief, and dead in his own bed

The formula Solzhenitsyn recorded as Frenkel's: "From a prisoner we must take everything in the first three months — after that we don't need him!"

A Jewish merchant born in Constantinople who became known as the 'Timber King of the Black Sea' in Odessa and ran a smuggling operation. Arrested in 1923 and sent to Solovki, he proposed tying food rations to labour output (the 'nourishment scale') and was elevated from prisoner to camp administrator within a year. He went on to lead construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, BAM, and the NKVD railway directorate, becoming the de facto architect of the Gulag forced-labour system. During the Battle of Stalingrad his crews built the Volga rockada railway in six months, a feat that earned him his third Order of Lenin. Retired as a lieutenant general and died in his Moscow bed.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1883–1973 ○ Natural causes

The Civil War's mounted legend: a marshal who survived into the age of mechanized war

In September 1941, as commander of the South-Western Direction, he telegraphed the Stavka urging a withdrawal from the Kiev salient; Stalin removed him, and the main forces of the South-Western Front were encircled soon afterward.

Born to a poor peasant family in the Don region, he was drafted in 1903, served as an Imperial Russian cavalryman and won all four grades of the St. George Cross, then led the 1st Cavalry Army that broke the Whites in the Civil War. One of the first five Marshals of the Soviet Union in 1935, during the Great Purge he demanded the execution of Bukharin and Rykov and sat on the Special Judicial Presence that tried Tukhachevsky, while the NKVD was also compiling material against himself. In 1941, commanding the South-Western Direction, he urged the Stavka to withdraw from the Kiev salient; Stalin removed him and he never commanded troops in the field again. Remembered as a champion of cavalry, he also made his own parachute jump and initiated horse-mechanized formations, and he died of a cerebral hemorrhage in Moscow on 26 October 1973.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1884–1926 ○ Natural causes

The Cheka's perpetual number two who built its revolutionary tribunal system

“A man of crystalline purity and selfless devotion to the party… an innate gentleness coexisting with an inexorability cultivated by dangerous work wherever the interests of the revolution demanded it.” — fellow Chekists' tribute, 1926

A Bolshevik from a Smolensk peasant family who entered revolutionary politics as a Moscow textile worker. He joined the Cheka at its founding in December 1917 as Dzerzhinsky's secretary, then served as First Deputy Chairman (1919–1921) and Chairman of the Special Tribunal, directing the suppression of the Left SR uprising, the 'Tactical Center' trial, and the Kronstadt rebellion. Throughout the Civil War he was one of the 'unchanging leadership core of four' alongside Dzerzhinsky, Peters, and Latsis. From 1922 to 1925, as Administrator of Affairs of the Party Central Committee, he assisted Stalin in tightening control of the party apparatus; in his final year he served as Deputy Commissar of Social Security.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1884–1927 ○ Cause of death disputed

Siberian partisan commander who led the partisan army of Yeniseysk Province and took custody of Ungern in Mongolia in 1921

Born to a peasant family in Ryazan Province in 1884, he worked as a carpenter, was drafted in 1906 and served in the 29th Siberian Rifle Regiment at Achinsk. In the First World War he won all four classes of the Cross of St. George, was commissioned and by 1917 was a staff captain. He joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in March 1918; when Achinsk fell to the Whites he went underground and opened partisan operations in January 1919. As chief of staff of a partisan army formed by merging his detachment with another, he marched 700 kilometres south through the taiga and took Minusinsk in September. In August 1921 his detachment took custody of Ungern in Mongolia. He later served as chief of staff of the Siberian border troops, and died in Ulaanbaatar in 1927 while a military adviser in Mongolia; sources differ on the cause of death.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1884–1936 ✕ Executed

Zinoviev's right hand who saved Petrograd, then vanished at Stalin's first show trial

Petrograd, 1919. Serge: 'Loud of voice, fond of the bottle, he never admitted a situation was hopeless. The city was saved mainly through Grigory Yevdokimov.'

A river sailor at 15 who joined the Bolsheviks in 1903, he helped save Petrograd from Yudenich in 1919 as political chief of the 7th Army. Victor Serge wrote: 'The city was saved mainly through Grigory Yevdokimov.' He chaired the Petrograd unions, became deputy chair of the Soviet, and in 1925 rose to First Secretary of the Leningrad party as Zinoviev's closest lieutenant and leader of the New Opposition. Stalin brought him to Moscow as CC secretary in 1926, but he joined the United Opposition, lost every post, and was expelled. Reinstated, he worked obscurely in the dairy industry until Kirov's murder triggered his arrest; he was a principal defendant at the first Moscow show trial and shot with Zinoviev and Kamenev.

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1884–1937 ✕ Died in prison

Head of the Estonian Workers' Commune and leader of the 1924 rising

He governed eastern Estonia as head of the Estonian Workers' Commune proclaimed at Narva in November 1918; arrested in 1937 during Stalin's Great Purge, he died on 11 December 1937 of injuries from a beating during interrogation.

Head of the Estonian Workers' Commune proclaimed at Narva in November 1918, he governed eastern Estonia for two months and organized the Tallinn rising of 1924. Arrested in 1937, he died under beating during interrogation.

Soviet Union state institutions Soviet communism 1884–1937 ✕ Executed

First People's Commissar for Agriculture who laid the statistical foundations of Soviet planning

On October 29, 1917, when Lenin urged the Central Committee to ready itself to seize power immediately, Milyutin was the first to oppose him: "We are not ready to strike the first blow; we are unable to depose and arrest the authorities in the immediate future." Lenin argued against him point by point. Exactly one week later, Milyutin was in charge of food supplies for that very insurrection.

As the first Sovnarkom People's Commissar for Agriculture (1917), he helped shape the revolutionary government's land policy. An economic theorist who began as a Menshevik and joined the Bolsheviks in 1910, he later headed the Central Statistical Administration (TsSU) and served as deputy chairman of Gosplan, building the statistical and calculative infrastructure of Soviet planning. A technocrat who sustained the state economic apparatus through the transitions from War Communism to NEP to the Five-Year Plans, he was arrested and executed in 1937 on charges of belonging to a 'Right counter-revolutionary organization.'

Soviet Communist Party and Bolsheviks Soviet communism 1884–1937 → Died

The architect of a forbidden future

In June 1931, Zamyatin wrote directly to Stalin: "For me, as a writer, to be deprived of the opportunity to write is a death sentence." With that one line, he secured permission to leave the Soviet Union.

A Bolshevik naval engineer turned writer, he imagined a future of control and conformity in *We*. The novel became the first work banned by Soviet censorship; when life as a writer became impossible, he wrote directly to Stalin and secured permission to leave. Even in Paris exile he kept his Soviet passport and sat with the Soviet delegation at the 1935 anti-fascist writers' congress, but died outside his homeland.